•••••••MMHMMHHMH 


THE 

STORY  OF  CORN 

AND  THE 

WESTWARD  MIGRATION 


By 
EUGENE   CLYDE  J3ROOKS 

Professor  of  Education,  Trinity  College,  Durham,  N.  C. 
Author  of  "  The  Story  of  Cotton  " 


RAND     McNALLY     &     COMPANY 

Chicago  New  York  London 


Copyright,  1916 
By  EUUKNE  C.  BROOKS 


STATE  a.,*.''".  SCHOOL 

MANUAL  AR-TS   »M>  «:<*£  ECONOWCS 

SANTA  BARBARA  CAIIFUHNIA 


THE  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  Preface iii 

A  List  of  the  Maps ix 

CHAPTER  I 

The  Struggle  for  Food i 

The  Feeding  Instinct  —  Relation  of  Food  to  the  Body — 
The  Story  of  Prometheus  and  Epimetheus — Wisdom  and 
Foresight  Developed  Slowly — How  Man  Made  the  Animals 
Help  Him— The  Corn  of  the  World— The  Value  of  Corn. 

CHAPTER  II 

Mythical  Stories  of  Our  Food-Giving  Plants 16 

The  Mystery  of  Life — The  Egyptian  Myth:  Isis  and 
Osiris — The  Greek  and  Roman  Myth:  Ceres  and  Proserpine 
—The  Indian  Myth:  Mondamin  and  Hiawatha — Ancient 
Use  of  Other  Vegetables. 

CHAPTER  III 

Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization 26 

Civilization  Improves  as  Food  Improves — Ancient  Knowl- 
edge of  Cooking — Importance  of  Good  Food — The  Bread 
of  the  World — Rise  of  the  Baker — How  Nations  Have  Fought 
for  Corn — Commerce  a  Necessity — A  New  Food. 

CHAPTER  IV 

How  the  Discovery  of  a  New  Continent  Affected  the  World's 

Food  Supply 44 

Evils  Due  to  Insufficient  Food — The  Cause  of  Famines  — 
The  Famines  of  the  World  before  America  was  Settled  —  The 
Famines  of  the  World  since  America  was  Settled — Relation 
of  Commerce  to  the  Food  Supply — Why  Universal  Famines 
Have  Not  Occurred  since  1 600 — The  New  Continent. 

CHAPTER  V 

A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food 57 

Interest  in  the  New  World  —  The  Wealth  of  the  'New 
World  —  How  America  was  Divided  among  the  Europeans — • 
The  First  English  Settlement  —  Early  Difficulties — How  a 
New  Food  was  Given  to  the  World  —  How  the  Pilgrim 
Colony  was  Saved  —  How  the  First  Settlers  Depended  upon 
Corn — Two  Stories — Importance  of  Corn  in  the  History 
of  America — Our  Gold. 


iv  The  Table  of  Contents 

CHAPTER  VI  PACE 

The  Lure  of  the  Land 74 

Land  Ownership — The  Free  Lands  of  America — How 
America  was  Settled — Religious  and  Political  Persecution 
— The  Thirteen  Colonies  Prospered  on  Corn — How  the 
Piedmont  Country  Depended  on  Corn  —  The  Growth  of  the 
Colonies  Depended  on  Corn — The  Call  of  the  Frontiers — The 
Land  beyond  the  Mountains: 


CHAPTER  VII 

Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country 93 

Why  the  English  Settlers  were  Slow  to  Cross  the  Moun- 
tains— Ancient  Highways — The  Disputed  Territory — The 
English  Take  Possession  of  the  Land  beyond  the  Mountains 

—  Daniel  Boone  Leads  the  Wi.-y — Fertility  of  the   Western 
Country — Troubles    with    England — George    Rogers    Clark 

—  How  the  Corn  Country  was  Taken — The  Geography  of 
the  Corn  Country. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Settling  the  Corn  Country in 

Beyond  the  Appalachians — Political  Difficulties:  States' 
Rights;  Forming  the  Northwest  Territory;  Government  of 
the  Northwest— The  Difficulties  in  the  West— The  First 
Settlement  in  the  Corn  Country — The  Great  Migration 
Westward  —  Hardships  Endured  —  Emigration  from  Europe 

—  Effect  of  Migration  on  the  States  East  of  the  Mountains 
— The  Distribution  of  Population. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country ; 132 

Primitive  Methods  of  Tilling  the  Soil — When  Corn  was 
King  —  Beginning  of  Western  Civilization — Early  Com- 
merce—  The  Pack  Horses — Effect  of  this  Isolation  on  the 
West— The  Source  of  Wealth— Value  of  this  Trade- 
Floating  Stores — The  National  Turnpike. 


CHAPTER  X 

Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World 149 

The  Need  of  Internal  Improvements  —  Political  Difficulties 
—Robert  Fulton— The  Clermont— Steamboats  on  the  Ohio- 
Why  the  Steamboat  was  Delayed— Effect  of  the  Steamboat  — 
The  Mississippi  Valley— The  Mississippi  River — How  the 
Great  Valley  was  Unified. 


The  Table  of  Contents  v 

CHAPTER  XI  PAGE 

An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements 167 

Dependence  of  the  West  upon  the  South — The  Era  of 
Canal  Building  —  Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal — The  Ohio 
Canal — Effect  of  these  Canals  on  the  West — Effect  of 
these  Canals  on  the  East — Effect  of  these  Canals  on  the 
Mississippi  Trade — Continued  Growth  of  the  Corn  Country 
— The  Grain  of  the  West — How  the  World  was  Needing 
the  Grain  of  the  West. 

CHAPTER  XII 

Railroads:     Completing  the  Connection  of  the  Corn  Country 

with  the  Markets  of  the  East 183 

The  Problem — The  Coming  of  the  Railroad — The 
Inventor  of  the  Locomotive — The  "Rocket" — The  Value  of 
Stephenson's  Invention — The  Coming  of  the  Locomotive  to 
America — The  Railroad  Starts  toward  the  Corn  Country — 
The  Effect  of  the  Railway. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

The  Granary  of  the  World 197 

A  New  Era — The  Movement  Westward — The  Limits  of 
the  Corn  Country  —  Prosperity  of  the  Corn  Country — How 
Grain  Made  Chicago — Relation  of  Corn  to  the  Live-Stock 
Industry — The  Product  of  the  Packing  Houses — The  Grain 
Trade  of  Chicago — The  Center  of  the  World's  Food  Supply. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

How  the  West  Became  the  Granary  of  the  World 217 

Before  the  Days  of  Improved  Machinery — McCormick 
and  the  Reaper — The  Effect  of  the  Reaper — The  Threshing 
Machine — The  Necessity  for  Machines  to  Harvest  Corn  — 
Methods  of  Harvesting  Corn — The  First  Machines  for 
Harvesting  Corn — Corn  Binders  —  Corn  Shockers — Corn 
Pickers — The  Plow  —  The  Grain  Elevator — How  the  West 
Became  the  Granary  of  the  World. 

CHAPTER  XV 

The  Last  American  Frontiers 236 

The  Last  of  the  Prairie  Lands — Movement  of  Population 
—  How  the  Far  West  is  Dependent  upon  the  Corn  Country — 
Improvements  in  Agriculture  —  Population  Increasing  Faster 
than  Corn  Production  —  The  Value  of  Corn  in  the  World's 
Commerce  —  Other  Food  Centers  Develop — The  Nation's 
Problem — The  Nation  Turned  to  the  South. 


vi  The  Table  of  Contents 

CHAPTER  XVI 

PACK 

Farmers'  Demonstration  Work  and  the  Corn-Club  Movement .  .  252 

The  Problem —  Seaman  A.  Knapp — Farmers'  Cooperative 
Demonstration  Work — Boys'  Corn  Clubs — The  Remarkable 
Results — How  the  Corn  Clubs  were  Organized — Result  of 
the  Farm  Demonstration  Work  —  Business  Management. 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Varieties  of  Corn 270 

Favorable  Conditions  for  Corn  Production — Extent  of  Its 
Cultivation  —  Varieties  of  Corn — The  Origin  of  Corn  —  How 
Varieties  are  Formed  —  Improving  the  Variety  by  Seed  Selec- 
tion—  How  Good  Soil  Improves  the  Variety  —  The  Use  of 
Fertilizer. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Corn:     The  National  Grain 289 

The  Value  of  Corn  —  The  Most  Common  Corn  Products  — 
The  Corn  Kitchen  at  the  Paris  Exposition — Corn  as  a  Food 
for  Man — A  Comparison. 

A  Bibliography 301 

The  Index 304 


THE  PREFACE 

The  struggle  of  the  human  race  for  food  has  been  and 
still  is  one  of  the  great  factors  in  the  growth  of  civilization. 
Histories  tell  us  of  the  progress  of  social  institutions. 
Geographies  analyze  the  world's  food  supply  and  describe 
in  detail  the  areas  that  are  most  productive.  Books  on 
agriculture  give  us  a  study  of  the  food  plants  and  the 
best  methods  of  securing  the  greatest  returns  from  the 
land.  But  none  of  these  texts  makes  it  sufficiently  clear 
to  the  youth  of  the  country  that  the  improvement  in 
food  plants  and  the  productivity  of  the  land  are  among 
the  greatest  factors  in  the  building  of  a  civilization. 

The  purpose  of  The  Story  of  Corn  is  to  combine  certain 
fundamental  principles  of  geography  and  agriculture 
and  treat  them  historically  in  order  that  the  youth  may 
appreciate  the  tremendous  importance  of  agriculture  in 
the  history  of  the  race.  A  complete  history  of  agriculture 
would  make  a  volume  too  large  and  too  technical  for 
grammar-grade  or  high-school  pupils.  Therefore  the 
cereals,  with  special  emphasis  on  Indian  corn,  have  been 
chosen  as  the  theme  for  this  book. 

The  Story  of  Corn  is  a  story  of  the  struggle  of  the- 
human  race  for  food.  Primitive  people  deified  the 
natural  forces  that  produced  the  food.  When  man 
relied  on  only  one  cereal,  famines  were  frequent.  But 
the  discovery  of  America  gave  to  the  world  a  new  cereal, 
maize  or  Indian  corn,  and  since  that  time  famines  among 
civilized  people  have  grown  less  and  less  frequent,  until 
to-day  they  are  practically  unknown  in  civilized  countries. 
This  new  cereal,  Indian  corn,  sustained  the  first  settlers 

vii 


viii  The  Preface 

in  their  attempts  to  build  homes  in  the  New  World,  and 
as  the  settlers  moved  westward,  it  was  Indian  corn  that 
drew  them  to  the  new  lands  and  supported  them  while 
they  opened  the  great  states  beyond  the  mountains. 
The  upper  Mississippi  Valley,  then,  became  the  world's 
granary,  and  Chicago  the  greatest  food  market  in  the 
world. 

The  grain  of  the  West  stimulated  the  demand  for 
better  communication,  and  internal  improvements  became 
a  great  national  issue.  Highways,  canals,  steamboats,  and 
railroads  were  built  to  connect  the  East  and  the  West  in 
order  that  the  grain  and  grain  products  might  reach  the 
markets  of  the  East.  In  this  way  the  corn  of  America 
affected  the  politics  of  the  United  States;  and  to-day  this 
nation  employs  a  great  army  of  people  to  study  how 
to  increase  the  food  supply  of  the  country  in  order  that 
the  people  may  continue  to  prosper. 

The  heroic  tale  to  be  found  in  The  Story  of  Corn  should 
be  exceedingly  profitable  to  the  youth  of  the  country,  for 
it  enables  them  to  understand  somewhat  the  widespread 
power  of  the  man  who  produces  the  world's  food. 

The  Story  of  Corn  is  a  companion  book  to  The  Story  of 
Cotton,  and  the  two  should  make  a  good  course  in  ele- 
mentary economic  history  for  the  last  year  of  the  grammar 
school  or  the  first  year  of  the  high  school. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book,  thanks  are  due  especially 
to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  to  W.  K. 
Boyd,  Professor  of  American  History,  and  W.  T.  Laprade, 
Professor  of  European  History,  Trinity  College,  Durham, 
N.  C. 

EUGENE  C.  BROOKS 
Durham,  North  Carolina 


A  LIST  OF  THE  MAPS 

PAGE 

The  cereal-producing  areas  of  the  world 14 

Map  showing  the  transportation  lines  of  the  world  in  1916. ..  54 

North  America  in  1650 61 

A  physical  map  of  the  United  States 82 

Early  highways  to  the  West 95 

Map  showing  the  claims  of  the  thirteen  states 114 

The  United  States  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
showing  the  distribution  of  population  per  square  mile  and 

the  center  of  population , . . 124 

Map  showing  the  distribution  of  railroads  in  the  United  States 

in  1850 193 

The  distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States  at  the 

beginning  of  the  twentieth  century 203 

Map  showing  the  areas  in  which  hogs  were  raised  in  1909. ...  210 

Map  showing  the  production  of  corn  in  the  United  States  in 

1849 216 

Map  showing  the  distribution  of  railroads  in  the  United  States 

in  1916 234 

The  production  of  corn  in  the  United  States 250 

The  corn-raising  areas  of  the  world 272 


Photocrtph  by  King  Print*  Co. 

A   modern  American  silo,  in  which  corn  is  stored  for  use 
as  food  for  stock 


THE  STORY  OF  CORN 

AND 
THE  WESTWARD  MIGRATION 

CHAPTER   I 
THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  FOOD 

The  Feeding  Instinct.  The  first  instinct  of  every 
being  is  to  secure  food  for  the  needs  of  its  body. 
The  moment  any  living  thing  appears  in  the  world 
it  begins  to  feel  about  for  food.  The  infant  animal 
makes  its  wants  known  by  signs,  and  the  little  plant 
begins  to  send  its  tiny  rootlets  around  in  the  soil. 
The  body  is  extremely  sensitive  to  the  pangs  of 
hunger,  and  responds  more  readily  to  its  call  than 
to  any  other  stimulus. 

When  the  body  is  insufficiently  nourished,  both 
the  mind  and  the  body  become  abnormal.  The 
child  in  the  schoolroom  is  unable  to  respond  to 
the  demands  of  the  teacher;  the  statesman  is  un- 
able to  hold  firmly  the  reins  of  government;  and 
the  laborer  in  the  fields,  in  the  store,  or  in  the 
factory  is  unable  to  render  efficient  service.  When 
the  weakening  organs  begin  to  call  for  support,  and 
the  life  currents  draw  heavily  on  the  stored-up 
energy  of  the  body,  all  the  native  habits  of  the 
individual  are  greatly  exaggerated  or  undergo  a 


2  The  Story  of  Corn 

sudden  change.  In  the  lower  animals,  whether  we 
consider  the  common  earthworm  or  the  monarch 
of  the  forest,  the  effect  is  the  same;  and  among  the 
races  of  men,  whether  we  consider  the  most  bestial 
cannibal  that  feeds  on  the  captives  taken  in  war 
or  the  most  exalted  ruler  in  the  universe,  the  instinct 
is  still  the  same.  Hunger  would  turn  a  king  into  a 
savage;  it  can  take  away  a  mother's  love  and  drive 
her  to  feed  on  her  child;  it  sometimes  fills  the  slums 
of  our  cities  with  thieves  and  thugs,  makes  null  and 
void  all  law  and  order,  and  turns  men  into  demons. 
Therefore  the  feeding  instinct  is  one  of  the  great 
motive  powers  that  drive  all  life  and  that  make  all 
living  things  active.  How  to  secure  sufficient  and 
wholesome  food  is  a  problem  that  confronts  every 
individual.  It  is  the  chief  concern  of  every  family, 
and  the  prosperity  of  the  home  depends  upon  the 
ease  with  which  its  food  may  be  secured  and 
prepared. 

This  problem  of  securing  food  is  one  of  the  lead- 
ing subjects  discussed  in  our  legislative  halls,  since 
it  affects  labor  conditions,  commerce,  and  interna- 
tional relations.  Indeed,  the  struggle  for  food  has 
been  one  of  the  determining  factors  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  social  institutions,  and  it  is  to-day  a 
subject  that  concerns  the  average  man  in  the  morn- 
ing when  he  begins  his  daily  toil  as  well  as  in  the 
evening  when  he  lays  aside  the  cares  of  the  day 
for  his  needed  rest. 

Relation  of  Food  to  the  Body.  To  be  intensely 
hungry  is  a  violation  of  a  fundamental  law  of  life. 


The  Struggle  for  Food  j 

Therefore  nature  has  endowed  all  animals,  the 
worm  as  well  as  the  lion,  with  complete  organs  for 
securing  food.  The  dog,  the  fox,  the  cat,  and  other 
animals  of  their  kind  have  a  keen  scent  which  leads 
them  to  food;  the  hog  has  a  stout  nose  for  rooting, 
the  chicken  long  claws  for  scratching,  the  wolf 
dangerous  fangs  for  tearing  its  prey  to  pieces.  In 
short,  every  animal,  according  to  its  nature,  is 
endowed  with  the  means  for  providing  itself  with 
food.  There  are  many  different  kinds  of  animals, 
and  in  many  cases  one  kind  feeds  upon  another. 
Therefore,  in  the  bodily  structure  of  each  are  found 
organs  for  fighting,  or  for  escaping  a  natural  enemy. 
The  deer  has  fleet  feet,  the  bird  has  swift  wings,  the 
porcupine  has  prickly  quills,  the  stag  has  antlers, 
the  horse  has  strong  legs,  while  the  lion's  strength 
makes  him  king  of  beasts. 

The  structure  of  an  animal  determines  in  a 
measure  the  nature  and  kind  of  food  it  must  have. 
In  all  this  struggle  for  food  some  animals,  like  the 
deer  or  horse,  depend  upon  roots,  herbs,  leaves,  and 
grasses,  while  others,  like  the  lion  and  tiger,  feed 
upon  other  animals.  But  in  either  case  they  take 
the  food  in  its  raw  state  and  eat  it  as  nature  provides 
it.  The  beast  of  the  forest  takes  little  thought  for 
the  morrow.  He  eats  of  what  he  finds  to-day  until 
the  body  is  satisfied ;  then  much  of  his  vicious  nature 
disappears  and  he  lazily  drowses  his  time  away  until 
the  pangs  of  hunger  begin  to  reappear  and  drive  him 
forth  again.  He  is  unable  to  provide  for  the  future, 
and  hunger  is  at  the  same  time  his  greatest  enemy 


The  Story  of  Corn 


and  his  ^rc-nti-st  stimulus  to  action.     Animals,  such 
as  the  wolf,  the  tiger,  and  the  lion,  that  live  chiefly 


Courtesy  of  Field  Museum,  Chicaco 

A  Pygmy  home  in  the  Philippines.     By  many  students  the  Pygmy 

people  are  thought  to  be  more  like  the  primitive  man 

than  any  other  existing  race 

on  the  flesh  of   other  animals   are   usually  more 
vicious  than  those  living  on  vegetable  food. 

We  are  not  able  to  prove  conclusively  that  certain 
kinds  of  food  produce  traits  of  character  alike 
in  man  and  beast.  But,  nevertheless,  wherever 
man  roams  wild,  naked  in  body  save  for  the  coarse 
hair  that  covers  him,  and  digs  in  marshy  places  for 
roots  which  he  eats  raw,  he  would  certainly  seem  to 
be  not  so  far  removed  from  the  animal  that  has 
similar  tastes  and  habits.  The  primitive  man  who 


The  Struggle  for  Food  5 

prowled  around,  club  in  hand,  and  who  slept  in 
caves,  was  no  doubt  a  being  superior  to  the  bear  or 
lion.  Yet  we  are  told  that  he  fed  on  raw  meat  and 
drank  blood,  and  that  he  could  tear  his  enemy's 
heart  out  and  eat  it  raw.  He  does  not,  therefore, 
appear  to  have  been  far  removed  in  character  from 
lions  or  tigers  that  lay  in  wait  for  their  prey  and 
tore  their  victims  limb  from  limb,  and,  after  feeding 
on  the  flesh  until  the  stomach  was  full,  lapped  up  the 
blood  and  strolled  lazily  away.  Consequently  we 
seem  to  be  justified  in  concluding  that  the  character 
of  an  animal  is  in  a  great  measure  shaped  by  its  food. 

The  Story  of  Prometheus  and  Epimetheus.  The 
superiority  of  man  over  the  lower  animals  is  well 
illustrated  by  the  story  of  Prometheus  and  Epime- 
theus as  told  by  Plato: 

"Once  upon  a  time  there  were  gods  only,  and  no 
mortal  creatures.  But  when  the  time  came  that 
animals  should  also  be  created,  the  gods  fashioned 
them  out  of  earth  and  fire  and  various  mixtures ;  but 
when  they  were  about  to  bring  them  into  the  light 
of  day,  they  ordered  Prometheus  and  Epimetheus  to 
equip  them,  and  to  distribute  to  them  severally  their 
proper  qualities.  Epimetheus  said  to  Prometheus: 

"  'Let  me  distribute,  and  do  you  inspect.' 

"This  was  agreed,  and  Epimetheus  made  the 
distribution.  There  were  some  to  whom  he  gave 
strength  without  swiftness,  or  again  swiftness  with- 
out strength;  some  he  armed  and  others  he  left 
unarmed;  and  devised  for  the  latter  some  other 
means  for  preservation,  making  some  large,  and 


6  The  Story  of  Corn 

having  their  size  as  a  protection,  and  others  small, 
whose  nature  was  to  fly  in  the  air  qr  burrow  in  the 
ground.  This  was  to  be  their  way  of  escape.  Thus 
did  he  compensate  them  with  the  view  to  preventing 
any  race  from  becoming  extinct.  And  when  he  had 
provided  against  their  destruction  by  one  another, 
he  contrived  also  a  means  of  protecting  them  against 
the  seasons;  clothing  them  with  coarse  hair  and 
thick  skins  sufficient  for  defending  them  from  the 
cold  and  heat,  and  for  a  natural  bed  of  their  own 
when  they  wanted  to  rest.  He  furnished  them  also 
with  hoofs  and  hair  and  hard  and  callous  skins  under 
their  feet.  Then  he  gave  them  varieties  of  food — to 
some  herbs  of  the  soil,  to  others  fruits  of  the  trees, 
and  to  others,  roots;  and  to  some  again  he  gave  other 
animals  as  food.  In  this  way  the  race  was  preserved. 
"Epimetheus,  however,  not  being  very  wise,  for- 
got that  he  had  distributed  among  the  brute  animals 
all  the  qualities  that  he  had  to  give,  and  when  he 
came  to  man,  who  was  still  unprovided,  he  was 
terribly  perplexed.  Now,  while  he  was  in  his  per- 
plexity, Prometheus  came  to  inspect  the  distribu- 
tion, and  he  found  that  the,  other  animals  were 
suitably  furnished,  but  that  man  alone  was  naked  and 
shoeless  and  had  neither  bed  nor  means  of  defense. 
TJie  appointed  hour  was  approaching  in  which  man 
was  to  go  forth  into  the  light  of  day;  and  Prome- 
theus, not  knowing  how  he  could  devise  man's  salva- 
tion, stole  from  the  gods  fire  and  the  art  of  working 
in  metals,  and  gave  to  him  the  foresight  and  wis- 
dom necessary  to  the  support  of  life." 


The  Struggle  for  Food  7 

Plato  wrote  this  story  to  teach  the  Greeks  that 
man  has  the  wisdom  to  change  all  things  around 
him  and  the  foresight  to  store  up  for  the  future, 
but  that  the  lower  animals  must  use  without  change 
what  they  can  find  in  nature.  The  animal  walks 
always  with  his  face  toward  the  earth,  looking 
for  what  is  prepared  by  nature  for  his  'use ;  but 
man  walks  always  erect,  with  his  head  up,  looking 
beyond  himself. 

Wisdom  and  Foresight  developed  slowly.  Since 
in  his  daily  life  man  differs  from  the  lower  animals 
according  to  the  amount  of  wisdom  he  displays,  it 
is  interesting  to  study  different  people  and  their 
characteristics — their  manner  of  life,  the  food  they 
eat,  the  foresight  they  display,  and  the  wisdom 
they  use  in  securing  and  preparing  food.  There 
are  races  of  men  so  much  like  the  lower  animals 
that  they  labor  only  so  long  as  they  are  hungry  or 
uncomfortable.  In  Africa  and  South  America  cer- 
tain very  primitive  races  live  more  like  beasts  than 
men.  They  roam  about  from  place  to  place,  sleep- 
ing in  tents,  caves,  or  thick  underbrush.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  roots,  fruit,  snails,  grasshoppers,  and  ants. 
They  have  few  cooking  utensils ;  a  stone,  or  a  hole  in 
the  ground,  is  all  they  need.  They  gorge  themselves 
and  then  sleep  until  hunger  calls  them  again  to 
action.  They  have  little  foresight  and  less  wisdom. 
The  finer  human  characteristics  have  not  yet  been 
developed  in  them,  and  their  habits  in  many  respects 
are  more  like  those  of  the  beasts. 

The  North  American  Indian  progressed  farther 


8  The  Story  of  Corn 

than  these  men.     The  Indian  possessed  some  of  the 
gifts  of   Prometheus.     He  had  learned  the  art  of 


Photograph  by  Rail 

The  Bedouins  of  Algeria  still  lead  a  -wandering  life,  driving  their 

cattle  from  place  to  place  in  search  of  pasture.     Though 

superior  to  the  primitive  man,  from  generation 

to  generation  they  are  but  little  more 

civilized  than  their  ancestors 

making  superior  weapons;  he  had  stone  mortars  for 
grinding  his  grain;  he  knew  how  to  dry  his  meat  in 
order  to  preserve  it  for  use  later;  he  had  learned  to 
bury  his  grain  in  the  ground  and  wait  for  it  to  bring 
forth  again;  he  had  learned  to  lay  up  the  unused 
portions  of  his  food  for  future  use.  There  was  cooper- 
ation in  the  home :  the  fathers  and  sons  went  hunt- 
ing and  fishing  to  secure  the  animal  food,  while  the 
mothers  and  daughters  cultivated  the  patches  around 


The  Struggle  for  Food  p 

the  wigwams  and  thus  provided  the  vegetable  food. 

It  is  quite  probable  that  women  invented  agri- 
culture, and  were  the  first  to  understand  the  art 
of  sowing  and  reaping. 

Among  primitive  people  wild  animals  were  taken 
captive  for  food.  When  there  was  more  food  than 
was  needed  for  immediate  use  the  live  animal  was 
probably  kept  in  captivity  until  the  previous  sup- 
ply was  exhausted.  Gradually  the  captive  animal 
lost  its  wild  nature,  and  thus  was  developed  our  first 
domestic  animal,  perhaps  the  dog.  In  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  the  women  were  governed  in  their 
selection  of  food  by  the  native  food  plants  in  their 
community,  and  by  the  ease  with  which  that  food 
could  be  preserved  for  future  use.  While  the  men 
were  domesticating  animals  and  thereby  learning 
to  provide  food  for  times  when  they  could  not 
engage  in  hunting,  the  women  were  learning  how 
to  cultivate  the  land  and  to  reap  more  than  they 
had  sown,  and  to  lay  the  surplus  away  for  time 
of  need.  In  this  way  mankind  received  the  gifts 
of  Prometheus. 

How  Man  made  the  Animals  help  him.  We 
have  already  seen  that  certain  tribes  of  men  were 
little  better  than  the  beasts  of  the  forest.  It  was 
not  until  man  learned  to  provide  a  fixed  home  and 
to  take  better  care  of  his  family  that  he  showed  him- 
self greatly  superior  to  the  beast.  When  home  life 
began,  family  ties  were  strengthened,  love  for  the 
different  members  of  the  family  increased,  and  all 
the  finer  attributes  began  to  develop. 


JO 


The  Story  of  Corn 


But  man  needed  helpers  in  his  struggle  with  the 
outside  world,  and  so  did  the  animals  of  the  forest. 
Man  had  wisdom  and  foresight ;  animals  had  physical 
strength.  Man  needed  the  animals,  and  they 
needed  man.  But  before  man  learned  the  value  of 
different  animals  it  is  quite  probable  that  he  used 
them  only  for  food.  The  dog,  at  first  used  as  a 
food,  later  learned  to  aid  man  in  capturing  other 
animals,  and  gradually  ceased  to  be  looked  upon 
as  a  food.  Instead  it  became  an  important  factor 
in  securing  food.  The  horse  and  the  camel  were 
also  probably  used  for  food  at  first,  but  on  account 

of  their  superior 
strength  they  be- 
came beasts  of  bur- 
den,— the  means  of 
securing  food,  and 
aids  in  fighting  the 
enemies  of  the  tribe. 
The  sheep,  the  goat, 
and  the  cow  were 
also  domesticated,  to 
be  eaten  in  time  of 
need.  These  animals  were  of  double  value  to  man, 
for  their  milk  was  a  wholesome  food  and  could  be  pre- 
served in  the  form  of  butter  and  cheese,  and  the  hair 
or  hides  could  be  converted  into  clothing;  besides, 
they  could  also  be  used  like  the  horse,  as  beasts  of 
burden.  But  man  did  not  stop  here.  He  went  into 
the  forest  and  caught  the  wild  hog,  tamed  it,  and 
improved  the  quality  of  its  flesh,  until  it  has  become 


From   'The  Tree  Dwellera" 

The  wild  hog  of  the  forest,  lamed, 
and  fed  upon  cereals,  has  devel- 
oped into  the  domes- 
ticated hog 


The  Struggle  Jor  Food  n 

a  very  important  food  to-day.  The  fowls  of  the  air 
were  likewise  domesticated.  The  hen,  the  goose, 
the  duck,  the  turkey,  the  pigeon,  and  the  peacock 
gave  their  eggs  and  their  flesh  for  food  and  their 
feathers  for  bedding  and  even  for  clothing. 

Thus  man  continued  to  rise  superior  to  the  beasts 
of  the  forest  and  the  fowls  of  the  air.  They  contrib- 
uted to  his  needs;  but,  as  they  did  so,  man's  wisdom 
had  to  be  increased  in  order  that  he  might  pro- 
vide food  for  them  also,  and  preserve  them  so  that 
they  might  be  of  more  value  to  him.  One  must 
help  the  other,  and  the  value  of  the  domestic  ani- 
mals is  determined  by  the  care  man  takes  of  them. 
In  providing  food  for  them  it  was  discovered  that 
the  hard  cereals  that  had  already  been  found  so 
valuable  to  man  made  the  best  food  for  his  domestic 
animals.  Therefore  the  cereals  became  the  chief 
food  of  both  man  and  beast. 

The  Corn  of  the  World.  The  term  "corn"  is 
applied  in  agriculture  to  the  seed  of  the  cereal 
plants.  The  word  is  often  understood  locally  to 
mean  that  kind  of  cereal  which  is  the  leading  crop 
of  the  district,  and  it  may  be  wheat,  barley,  oats, 
maize  (Indian  corn),  rye,  millet,  or  even  rice.  It  is 
written  in  Genesis:  "And  all  countries  came  into 
Egypt  to  Joseph  to  buy  corn;  because  the  famine 
was  sore  in  the  land."  The  grain  mentioned  in  this 
quotation  was  probably  wheat.  Ruth  gleaned  ears 
of  corn  in  the  barley  fields  of  Boaz,  while  in  Pha- 
raoh's wonderful  dream  the  seven  good  ears  of  corn 
that  devoured  the  seven  thin  and  blasted  ears  were 


12 


The  Story  of  Corn 


probably  ears  of  wheat.  Again,  in  Roman  history" 
we  read  of  a  great  popular  uprising  because  bread 
was  scarce,  and  the  Gracchi  became  great  tribunes 
of  the  people  because  they  advocated  more  favorable 
corn  laws.  The  grain  referred  to  then  was  wheat. 
Rice  is  the  corn  of  China  and  Japan,  rye  of  northern 
Europe,  oats  of  Scotland,  and  wheat  of  England.  In 
America  an  ear  of  corn  means  an  ear  of  maize, 
or  Indian  corn,  the  national  grain  of  our  country. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  A  Underwood,  N.  Y. 


A  housewife  of  the  Ecuador  highlands  grinding  oats  for  bread.    Oats, 
originally  the  grain  food  of  Europe,  is  still  the  "corn"  of  Scotland 


The  Struggle  for  Food  13 

It  was  natural  that  the  cereals  should  become  the 
source  of  all  our  bread.  They  can  be  preserved 
easily,  while  tubers  and  fruits  soon  decay.  Wheat, 
barley,  oats,  Indian  corn,  millet,  and  rye,  if  properly 
cared  for,  remain  for  the  most  part  unhurt  by  cold, 
heat,  dryness,  or  dampness.  Hence  their  great  value 
to  the  world. 

The  Value  of  Corn.  In  the  earlier  ages  a  man's 
wealth  was  measured  by  the  number  of  his  domestic 
animals.  But  in  order  to  care  for  them  as  well 
as  for  himself  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  store  up 
enough  food  in  the  harvest  season  to  last  until  the 
harvest  came  again.  Therefore,  as  the  size  of  the 
family  and  the  number  of  domestic  animals  increased, 
how  to  secure  food  became  a  greater  and  greater 
problem.  Man  had  to  stop  his  wandering  life  and 
make  the  land  increase  its  yield.  But  cultivating 
the  soil  requires  time,  labor,  and  patience.  The 
stronger  domestic  animals,  such  as  the  horse, 
the  ox,  and  the  camel,  were  trained  to  work  in  the 
field.  Man's  wisdom  and  foresight  increased,  and 
he  began  to  observe  the  seasons  and  note  their 
influence  on  the  soil,  the  plant,  and  the  health  of 
his  family.  He  learned  to  plan  and  plant,  and  wait 
for  results.  He  built  a  home  for  his  family  and 
shelters  for  his  animals ;  he  measured  the  boundaries 
of  his  own  land  and  became  king  of  the  earth. 

As  his  foresight  developed,  more  and  more  ce- 
reals were  produced.  With  them  man  has  been 
able  to  make  the  wild  hogs  beg  food  at  his  hands. 
Geese  and  ducks,  no  longer  wild,  call  for  their 


K 

"8 


The  Struggle  for  Food  15 

portion  as  the  sun  rises  and  sets.  His  sheep  and 
goats,  his  cows  and  horses,  all  acknowledge  him  their 
lord  and  master.  By  owning  the  land  and  control- 
ling the  products  thereof  he  controls  the  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter  of  mankind.  Thus  it  was  natural 
that  those  who  controlled  the  land  should  become,  on 
account  of  their  wisdom,  kings  of  men  and  lords  of  the 
land,  or  landlords.  How  man  rose  to  this  lordship 
is  a  long  story,  and  one  full  of  the  greatest  interest. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Plowing  in  the  valley  of  Ajalon,  Palestine.      The  ox,  one  of  the 

first  animals  trained  to  work  in  the  fields,  still  performs  its 

humble  tasks  for  man  in  many  regions  of  the  world 


CHAPTER  II 
MYTHICAL  STORIES  OF  OUR  FOOD-GIVING  PLANTS 

The  Mystery  of  Life.  "The  earth  is  the  mother 
of  all,  and  the  stones  are  her  bones,"  said  the 
ancients,  and  those  who  understood  only  partly 
the  strange  processes  going  on  in  the  earth  were 
considered  the  wisest  of  men.  In  fact,  primitive 
peoples  in  all  ages  have  had  the  notion  that  this 
strange  process,  seen  in  the  growth  and  fruitage  of 
the  plants,  is  controlled  by  special  gods,  and  we 
find  many  strange  religious  customs  associated  with 
cultivating  the  plants  and  harvesting  the  grain.  So 
important  were  the  coming  and  going  of  the  seasons, 
and  so  regular  were  they  in  obeying  some  myste- 
rious law,  that  earlier  peoples  felt  instinctively  that 
the  seasons  were  also  controlled  by  special  deities, 
probably  in  many  instances  the  same  as  those  direct- 
ing the  growth  of  the  plant.  Therefore,  much  of 
the  religion  of  the  people  in  ancient  times  was  given 
to  the  worship  of  the  deities  that  made  the  plant 
to  grow  and  the  grain  to  ripen. 

Although  in  those  early  ages  man  did  not  know 
how  to  make  the  soil  increase  its  yield,  he  did  observe 
that  the  river  valleys  were  the  most  fertile  parts 
of  the  earth.  Therefore,  the  great  civilizations  of 
ancient  times  were  always  located  in  the  great  river 
valleys.  Here  resided  the  gods  who  controlled 

16 


Mythical  Stories  of  Our  Food-Giving  Plants        17 

the  seasons  and  directed  the  growth  of  the  food- 
giving  plants.  In  studying  the  most  renowned  river 
valleys  of  the  East,  such  as  the  Ganges,  the  Euphra- 
tes, or  the  Nile,  or  the  great  valleys  of  North  and 
South  America,  such  as  the  Mississippi  and  La 
Plata,  we  discover  that  the  ancient  races  worshiped 
special  deities  who  were  supposed  to  watch  over  the 
growing  grain,  and  that  they  had  strange  ceremonies 
to  celebrate  the  sowing  and  the  harvesting  of  grain. 
These  facts  show  how  intimately  the  religions  of 
these  people  were  associated  with  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil.  The  Hebrews  alone  had  one  God, 
Jehovah.  He  was  an  all-wise  father  who  guided 
them  in  their  sowing  and  reaping  as  well  as  in  their 
sickness  and  health. 

The  Egyptian  Myth:  Isis  and  Osiris.  One  of 
the  oldest  civilizations  of  the  world  was  located  on 
the  banks  of  the  Nile  River  near  its  mouth.  This 
river  takes  its  rise  beyond  the  vast  desert  that 
stretches  far  to  the  southward,  and  flows  for  many 
hundreds  of  miles  through  a  barren,  burning  waste 
of  sand,  bringing  a  tremendous  volume  of  water  to 
refresh  the  lowlands  near  its  mouth.  This  in  itself 
was  a  great  mystery.  Periodically,  as  if  guided  by 
the  hand  of  some  deity,  this  mighty  river  rises  and 
swells  its  bosom  until  its  waters  overflow  its  banks 
and  spread  far  out,  miles  and  miles  from  its  bed. 
This  periodical  overflow  brings  to  the  lower  valley 
sufficient  water  for  the  production  of  food  in  plenty. 
As  it  is  to-day,  so  it  was  in  the  days  of  Joseph  and 
the  Pharaohs;  and  since  all  life  was  supported  by 


i8  The  Story  of  Corn 

the  Nile,  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians  was  always 
associated  with  that  river. 

In  the  mythology  of  Egypt  there  is  a  story  to  the 
effect  that  the  crystal  springs  of  the  Nile  bubble 
up  in  the  garden  of  Paradise,  the  home  of  the  gods. 
Then,  wandering  through  lovely  meadows,  the 
infant  stream  finally  expands  into  the  lordly  and 
majestic  river  which  offers  life  and  plenty  to  the 
world.  The  overflow  of  this  great  river  is  hailed 
to-day  with  shouts  of  joy  and  thanksgiving,  for  its 
waters  cover  the  fields  tftat  bring  forth  grain  in 
plenty.  Thus  it  was  also  when  Jacob's  sons  went 
down  into  Egypt  to  buy  corn. 

The  god  Osiris,  the  greatest  deity  of  the  Egyptians, 
controlled  the  flow  of  the  Nile  and  was  universally 
worshiped  in  Egypt.  He  was  worshiped  likewise 
in  other  countries,  whose  people  came  down  into 
Egypt  to  buy  corn,  for  he  had  his  home  in  the  garden 
of  Paradise  and  sent  the  water  down  into  the  burning 
desert  that  the  people  might  have  corn. 

But,  according  to  the  mythology  of  Egypt,  Osiris 
was  murdered  one  day.  The  Nile  was  thereupon 
still,  and  the  waters  refused  to  overflow  the  banks. 
There  was  famine  in  the  land.  Isis,  the  wife  of 
Osiris  and  queen  of  Paradise,  hearing  of  the  death 
of  her  husband,  sought  his  remains  in  the  great 
river  whose  waters  were  silent,  mourning  for  his 
death.  When  the  body  was  found  Isis  was  over- 
come with  grief.  But  as  her  tears  began  to  fall  the 
river  began  to  rise  and  the  waters  again  began  to 
overflow  the  banks.  It  was  Isis,  the  goddess  of 


Mythical  Stories  of  Our  Food-Giving  Plants        IQ 


heaven,  who  had  caused  the  water  to  come  again 
and  the  famine  to  cease;  therefore  Isis  was  worshiped 
as  the  immediate  cause  of  the  Nile's  overflow  and 
of  the  people's  prosperity.  On  the  monuments  she 
is  called  the  goddess  mother,  the  mistress  of  heaven, 
the  eye  of  the  sun,  and  the  queen  of  the  gods. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  Myth:  Ceres  and  Pro- 
serpine. The  Greek  goddess  of  seed  and  harvest 
.was  Demeter,  who 
presided  over  the 
sowing,  reaping,  and 
grinding  of  corn. 
The  Romans  wor- 
shiped Ceres,  who 
was  the  creator  of 
food  for  man.  When 
the  Greeks  settled  in 
Italy  and  associated 
with  the  Romans 
they  adopted  Ceres 
as  their  goddess,  but 
gave  to  her  many  of 
the  mythological  in- 
cidents which  origi- 
nated with  Demeter. 
These  stories  were  believed  by  both  Greeks  and 
Romans.  The  most  noted  of  these  is  the  story  of 
Ceres  and  Proserpine. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  believed  that  Ceres, 
during  July  and  August,  was  driving  over  the  earth 
caring  for  the  growing  plants,  and  that  during  the 


From  a  painting  in  Pompeii 

Ceres,  the  goddess  of  seed  and  harvest 


2O  The  Story  of  Corn 

month  of  September  she  was  ripening  the  fruit  and 
making  the  fields  yellow  with  nodding  heads  of 
golden  grain.  These  ancient  peoples  believed  that 
formerly  plants  had  grown  and  ripened  all  the  year 
round;  but  one  day  while  Ceres  was  caring  for  the 
ripening  grain  and  fruits  over  the  earth,  her  daughter 
Proserpine,  a  young  woman  of  great  beauty,  was 
seized  by  Pluto,  the  god  of  the  lower  regions,  who 
carried  her  to  his  home  in  Hades.  When  Ceres 
returned  home  she  was  stricken  with  grief,  and  over 
the  whole  earth  she  drove  her  chariot,  calling  upon 
all  things  to  help  her  in  her  search,  but  in  vain. 
Then  in  her  great  grief  the  goddess  refused  to  allow 
the  grain  to  grow  and  to  ripen,  and  there  was  famine 
in  all  the  world. 

Jupiter,  however,  seeing  the  great  distress  below, 
sent  Mercury,  the  wing-footed  messenger  of  the 
gods,  to  Pluto,  commanding  him  to  release  Proser- 
pine. She  was  restored  to  her  mother,  and  there 
was  great  rejoicing  in  all  the  earth.  Vegetation  at 
once  began  to  take  on  a  new  life,  and  the  grain 
began  again  to  grow  and  the  fruit  to  ripen.  But 
when  Ceres  saw  her  daughter  she  feared  one  thing 
—that  she  had  eaten  food  in  Pluto's  kingdom.  She 
questioned  Proserpine,  who  replied  that  she  had 
eaten  only  some  pomegranate  seeds. 

"Alas! "  cried  Ceres,  "you  must  remain  with  Pluto 
in  the  realm  of  darkness  one  half  of  your  time." 

Thus  the  seasons  are  accounted  for.  While  Pro- 
serpine is  with  Pluto,  Ceres  is  sad  and  there  is  no 
vegetation  and  it  is  winter.  But  when  mother  and 


Mythical  Stories  of  Our  Food-Giving  Plants 


21 


daughter  are  together  the  earth  is  covered  with  the 
gifts  of  Ceres,  and  it  is  summer  throughout  the  world. 
The  Indian  Myth:  Mondamin  and  Hiawatha. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  bread  of  the  Indian  came 
from  maize,  or  Indian  corn.  The  story  of  Mon- 
damin as  told  in  Hiawatha  is  the  Indian  myth  of 
the  origin  of  maize.  When  Hiawatha  was  a  little 


From  Hiawatha  "Industrial  Reader" 


Then  the  ripened  ears  he  gathered, 
Gave  the  first  Feast  of  Mondamin 


22  The  Story  of  Corn 

boy,  he  lived  in  a  beautiful  country  near  the  "Big 
Sea  Water."  It  was  customary  for  all  Indian  boys, 
when  approaching  manhood,  to  fast  for  several 
days  in  order  that  the  Great  Spirit  might  tell  them 
what  spirit  would  be  their  guide  through  life. 
Therefore  when  it  came  time  for  Hiawatha  to  go 
through  his  season  of  fasting  he  went  far  away  into 
the  forest,  and  there  alone  he  built  his  wigwam  and 
began  his  fasting.  Late  in  the  afternoon  of  the 
fourth  day  of  his  fasting  he  was  faint  and  weak, 
and  as  he  lay  on  the  floor  of  his  wigwam  a  beautiful 
youth  in  garments  of  greens  and  yellows  of  many 
shades,  with  green  plumes  in  his  yellow  hair,  came 
and  stood  before  him  and  spoke  to  him: 

1  '  From  the  Master  of  Life  descending, 
I,  the  friend  of  man,  Mondamin, 
Come  to  warn  you  and  instruct  you, 
How  by  struggle  and  by  labor 
You  shall  gain  what  you  have  prayed  for. 
Rise  up  from  your  bed  of  branches, 
Rise,  O  youth,  and  wrestle  with  me!' ' 

Hiawatha  arose  at  once-  and  began  wrestling  with 
Mondamin,  and  as  he  wrestled  Hiawatha  grew 
stronger.  But  when  the  sun  went  down  the  contest 
ended,  and  Mondamin  said  he  would  return  the 
following  day.  For  three  days  they  wrestled,  and 
each  day  Hiawatha  grew  stronger,  until  at  the  end 
of  the  third  contest  Mondamin  cried: 

"  'O  Hiawatha! 

Bravely  have  you  wrestled  with  me, 
Thrice  have  wrestled  stoutly  with  me, 
And  the  Master  of  Life,  who  sees  us, 
He  will  give  to  you  the  triumph! 


Mythical  Stories  of  Our  Food-Giving  Plants        23 

.    .    .     To-morrow 
Is  the  last  day  of  your  conflict, 
Is  the  last  day  of  your  fasting. 
You  will  conquer  and  o'ercome  me; 
Make  a  bed  for  me  to  lie  in, 
Where  the  rain  may  fall  upon  me,    ' 
Where  the  sun  may  come  and  warm  me; 
Strip  these  garments,  green  and  yellow, 
Strip  this  nodding  plumage  from  me, 
Lay  me  in  the  earth,  and  make  it 
Soft  and  loose  and  light  above  me. 
Let  no  hand  disturb  my  slumber, 
Let  no  weed  nor  worm  molest  me, 
Let  not  Kahgahgee,  the  raven, 
Come  to  haunt  me  and  molest  me, 
Only  come  yourself  to  watch  me. 
Till  I  wake,  and  start,  and  quicken, 
Till  I  leap  into  the  sunshine.'  " 

As  Mondamin  had  predicted,  on  the  last  day  of 
the  contest,  which  was  the  last  day  of  Hiawatha's 
fasting,  Mondamin  was  overcome  and  Hiawatha 
did  as  he  was  commanded.  His  fast  being  ended, 
he  returned  to  the  wigwam  of  old  Nokomis. 

"But  the  place  was  not  forgotten 
Where  he  wrestled  with  Mondamin; 
Nor  forgotten  nor  neglected 
Was  the  grave  where  lay  Mondamin, 
Sleeping  in  the  rain  and  sunshine, 
Where  his  scattered  plumes  and  garments 
Faded  in  the  rain  and  sunshine. 
Day  by  day  did  Hiawatha 
Go  to  wait  and  watch  beside  it; 
Kept  the  dark  mould  soft  above  it, 
Kept  it  clean  from  weeds  and  insects, 
Drove  away,  with  scoffs  and  shoutings, 
Kahgahgee,  the  king  of  ravens. 
Till  at  length  a  small  green  feather 


24  The  Story  of  Corn 

i 

From  the  earth  shot  slowly  upward, 
Then  another  and  another, 
And  before  the  Summer  ended 
Stood  the  maize  in  all  its  beauty, 
With  its  shining  robes  about  it, 
And  its  long,  soft,  yellow  tresses; 
And  in  rapture  Hiawatha 
Cried  aloud,  'It  is  Mondamin! 
Yes,  the  friend  of  man,  Mondamin!' 

And  still  later,  when  the  Autumn 
Changed  the  long,  green  leaves  to  yellow, 
And  the  soft  and  juicy  kernels 
Grew  like  wampum  hard  and  yellow, 
Then  the  ripened  ears  he  gathered, 
Stripped  the  withered  husks  from  off  them, 
As  he  once  had  stripped  the  wrestler, 
Gave  the  first  Feast  of  Mondamin, 
And  made  known  unto  the  people 
This  new  gift  of  the  Great  Spirit!" 

This  is  the  beautiful  story  of  the  origin  of  Indian 
corn,  which  has  been  and  is  to-day  of  so  much 
importance  to  the  world. 

Ancient  Use  of  other  Vegetables.  It  was  a  belief 
of  the  Cherokee  Indians  that  all  the  diseases  came 
from  animals,  but  that  plants  contained  a  cure  for 
every  disease.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  a 
large  number  of  the  vegetable  foods  found  on  our 
tables  came  into  use  first  as  medicinal  plants. 

The  cabbage  was  originally  regarded  as  a  remedy 
for  drunkenness  and  various  diseases.  The  Greeks 
thought  that  asparagus  was  a  good  remedy  for 
intestinal  troubles,  and  that  the  beet  had  very  fine 
medicinal  qualities.  The  cucumber  was  supposed 
to  have  all  sorts  of  healing  qualities,  while  lettuce, 


Mythical  Stories  of  Our  Food-Giving  Plants       25 

the  favorite  plant  of  Adonis,  possessed  certain  nar- 
cotic virtues.  Garlic  aroused  the  valor  of  warriors, 
and  it  was,  therefore,  avoided  in  times  of  peace. 
Parsley  excited  the  brain  to  agreeable  sensations, 
watercress  was  very  refreshing,  and  onions  were 
good  for  preserving  the  health.  Hyssop  renewed 
and  purified  the  blood,  thyme  was  good  to  destroy 
the  effect  of  a  serpent's  bite,  penny-royal  was  taken 
to  facilitate  digestion,  mint  preserved  milk  from 
curdling,  ginger  was  a  cure  for  scurvy,  and  asafetida 
was  in  ancient  times  the  chief  seasoning  for  food, 
since  it  was  supposed  to  promote  digestion.  All 
these  vegetables  were  in  use  long  before  the  Christian 
era.  In  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  go  back  to  a  time 
when  they  were  not  known.  Patroclus  probably 
peeled  onions,  Achilles  washed  cabbages,  and  many 
centuries  before  the  Trojan  wars  the  chief  baker 
for  Pharaoh  fell  into  disrepute,  probably,  because 
of  the  poor  bread  he  served. 


CHAPTER  III 
FOOD  A  FACTOR  IN  CIVILIZATION 

Civilization  improves  as  Food  improves.  Since 
the  ancients  believed  that  the  gods  had  special  care 
of  the  grain,  it  is  only  natural  that  they  should 
strive  in  every  way  possible  to  make  the  food  from 
this  grain  pleasing  in  the  sight  of  the  gods.  It 
has  been  said  that  the  first  use  made  of  fire  was 
to  prepare  food  for  the  religious  feast.  Whether 
this  be  true  or  not  is  immaterial.  But  this  we 
know,  from  studying  the  manners  and  customs  of 
people,  that  since  the  first  meal  was  brought  smoking 
hot  from  the  flames  or  dying  embers,  man  in  his 
progress  from  primitive  life  has  learned  from 
experience  that  his  disposition  is  affected  to  a 
certain  extent  by  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
food  that  passes  into  his  stomach.  Moreover,  as 
man  progresses  he  improves  his  food  in  order  that 
he  may  the  more  easily  utilize  its  health-giving 
properties.  He  not  only  improves  what  he  has, 
but  he  is  constantly  seeking  throughout  the  world 
the  most  wholesome  food,  in  order,  that  the  mind 
and  body  may  profit  by  it. 

"Tell  me  what  thou  eatest  and  I  will  tell  thee 
who  th'ou  art"  is  an  old  saying.  This  is  just  another 
way  of  stating  that  the  food  we  eat  is  a  sign  of 
civilization.  A  coarse  savage  spirit  inhabits  a  coarse, 

2j6 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization 


27 


rough,  animal  body,  whether  the  body  be  that  of 
man  or  beast.     However,  by  the  proper  care  of 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

Adobe  oven  in  an  Indian  pueblo.     An  important  improvement  in 
the  art  of  cooking.     The  use  of  the  oven  among  these  Indians 
indicates  a  higher  civilization  than  that  of  most  of 
their  North  American  neighbors 

the  body  and  the  proper  selection  and  preparation 
of  food,  it  is  possible  to  improve  the  disposition  of 
people.  The  improvement  in  the  art  of  cooking, 
therefore,  has  been  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  man- 
kind. It  has  taken  the  raw  flesh  of  animals  slain 


28  The  Story  of  Corn 

in  the  forest  and  so  changed  it  that  a  wholesome  food 
is  the  result.  It  has  taken  the  leaves  from  the  grow- 
ing plant  and  the  grain  from  the  sheaves  and  has 
converted  them  into  a  life-giving  force  sufficient  to 
withstand  the  increasing  mental  and  physical  strain. 
Nature  makes  us  hungry,  but  art  creates  and  modi- 
fies and  directs  the  appetite  and  enables  civilization 
to  move  forward. 

Ancient  Knowledge  of  Cooking.  It  has  ever 
required  the  greatest  skill  to  convert  the  corn  of  a 
country  into  a  wholesome  food.  How  to  make  a 
wholesome  bread  out  of  the  cereals  found  in  the 
community  engaged  the  attention  of  primitive  man 
long  before  the  beginning  of  recorded  history. 
Bread  is. very  ancient  in  its  origin,  and  the  art  of 
bread  baking  is  older  than  history  itself.  Man 
learned  from  experience  that  bread  supports  life 
better  than  any  other  single  food  except  milk,  and 
much  thought  was  devoted  to  its  preparation  even 
in  the  very  earliest  times. 

Sarah,  the  venerable  wife  of  Abraham,  knew  well 
how  to  mix  flour  and  water  into  a  shapely  pone, 
which  she  baked  in  the  hot  ashes  before  her  tent. 
The  most  ancient  Egyptians  knew  how  to  make 
a  light,  wholesome  bread,  known  as  leavened  bread, 
an  art  that  the  Hebrews  carried  with  them  into 
Palestine.  The  Greeks  "learned  to  mix  flour,  wine, 
pepper,  oil,  and  milk,  and  the  ladies  of  Greece 
delighted  their  friends  with  puff  cakes  whose  ex- 
quisite and  perfumed  flour  was  kneaded  with  the 
precious  honey  of  Mount  Hymettus.  The  Roman 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization 


29 


patrician  ate  a  bread  made  by  mixing  flour,  salt,  oil, 
and  milk,  and  when  the  white  man 'first  came  to 
America  the  Indian  taught  him  to  make  an  ash 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 


The  women  of  Jericho  to-day  bake  unleavened  bread  just  as 
Sarah  did  in  the  days  of  Abraham 


jo  The  Story  of  Corn 

cake  from  Indian  corn.  Not  only  has  the  world 
been  studying  bread  making  since  the  earliest 
recorded  time,  but  the  more  advanced  nations 
noticed  real  differences  in  the  value  of  foods.  Many 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era  Moses  taught  his 
people  the  difference  between  clean  and  unclean 
food.  The  Greeks,  clever  students  of  life  and  of 
how  to  live,  studied  the  influence  of  food  on  the  mind 
and  body,  and  taught  all  subsequent  generations 
how  to  live. 

Importance  of  Good  Food.  An  individual's  worth 
to  the  world  is  measured  by  his  ability  to  think  and 
to  work.  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body,  therefore, 
is  essential  to  one's  well-being,  and  whoever  damages 
the  health  of  the  body,  either  his  own  or  that  of 
another,  has  committed  a  sin  against  humanity 
and  retarded  the  world's  progress.  It  makes  little 
difference  whether  the  sin  is  committed  in  ignorance 
or  is  a  conscious  violation  of  the  laws  of  God — the 
results  are  the  same,  and  the  world  suffers. 

The  living  body  draws  its  nourishment  from 
three  sources, — the  air  we  breathe,  the  water  we 
drink,  and  the  food  we  eat, — and  each  of  these 
essentials  to  life  may  be  so  polluted  by  man  as  to 
damage  the  health  of  the  body  and  weaken  the 
mind.  It  was  once  supposed  that  these  forces 
were  presided  over  by  special  deities  and  that  when 
sickness  came  it  was  because  the  gods  'were  angry 
with  their  people.  There  is  an  element  of  truth 
in  this  old  notion;  but  in  those  ancient  days  man 
gave  all  the  credit  or  blame  to  the  gods.  We  know 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization  ji 

that  man  himself  is  for  the  most  part  responsible  for 
the  diseases  that  come  to  him.  The  world  is  con- 
trolled by  law,  and  there  are  laws  that  govern  the 
physical  well-being  of  man.  When  he  breaks  these 
laws  man  suffers. 

In  providing  food,  man  at  times  takes  little 
thought  for  the  actual  needs  and  welfare  of  the 
body  and  throws  into  his  stomach  food  so  poorly 
prepared  that  the  digestive  organs  cannot  use  it 
properly.  As  a  result  health  is  impaired,  the  body 
damaged,  the  disposition  made  vicious,  the  thinking 
weakened,  and  the  whole  character  affected.  Hence 
the  proper  selection  and  preparation  of  food  is  one 
of  the  most  important  subjects  for  both  men  and 
women  to  study  to-day.  When  Moses  gave  his 
health  laws  to  the  Hebrews  he  made  them  equal 
in  importance  to  the  ten  commandments.  And  it 
is  just  as  necessary  for  a  person  to  know  how  to 
provide  proper  food  as  it  is  for  him  to  know  that 
it  is  wrong  to  steal.  If  through  carelessness  or 
ignorance  he  take  away  the  health  of  another,  by 
giving  or  selling  improper  food,  he  has  caused  more 
damage  than  if  he  had  stolen  his  neighbor's  goods. 
Therefore  our  schools  to-day  are  making  the  subject 
of  food  selection  and  preparation  one  of  the  impor- 
tant subjects  for  children  to  study.  The  ancient 
nations  had  severe  laws  against  tampering  with 
food,  and  to-day  one  of  the  most  serious  offenses 
against  our  law  should  be  to  put  on  the  market  an 
impure  or  adulterated  food,  or  to  misrepresent  the 
quality  of  any  article  of  food. 


J2  The  Story  of  Corn 

The  Bread  of  the  World.  It  has  been  well  said 
that  the  quality  of  the  bread  used  by  the  inhabitants 
of  any  country  is  a  fair  measure  of  their  civilization, 
and  of  all  cooking  processes  now  in  use  by  civilized 
man  the  cooking  of  bread  is  perhaps  the  most 
important.  The  kind  of  bread,  however,  in  a  given 


Copyright  by  Underwood  *  Underwood.  N.  Y. 

Panamanian  children  pounding  rice  in  a  rude  wooden  mortar 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization  jj 

country  has  always  depended  upon  the  kind  of 
corn  or  grain  or  food-giving  plants  found  in  that 
country. 

Wheat  bread  is  probably  the  most  widely  used 
bread  in  the  world's  history.  It  is  doubtless  the 
oldest  bread  in  the  world,  since  it  is  believed  that 
the  original  home  of  wheat  was  in  the  Mesopotamian 
valley,  where  it  is  thought  the  human  race  had  its 
beginning.  Rye  bread  is  next  in  importance  to-day, 
and  though  it  has  not  had  such  a  long,  continuous 
use  as  wheat  it  is  used  in  Germany,  France,  Spain, 
and  Greece.  Buckwheat,  or  black  wheat,  is  the 
staple  bread  flour  of  Russia,  Siberia,  and  Brittany. 
Soya  bread  is  eaten  in  some  places,  especially  by  the 
inhabitants  of  China,  and  Japan.  It  is  made  from 
an  oily  pea  that  is  native  to 'these  countries.  Millet 
flour,  made  from  the  millet  seed,  produces  a  whole- 
some bread  that  is  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of 
India,  China,  Egypt,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal. 

Rice,  however,  is  the  staple  food  of  me  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world,  although  less  eaten 
in  America  than  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  even  in 
Europe.  Barley  bread  was  an  ancient  food  of 
note,  but  it  is  not  used  to-day  to  any  great 
extent,  except  in  portions  of  Russia.  '  Oats  was 
originally'  the  grain  food  of  Europe;  it  has  been 
eaten  in  Germany  for  at  least  a  thousand  years, 
but  to-day  is  eaten  more  in  Scotland  than  in  any 
other  country.  Arrowroot  starch  or  flour  is  derived 
from  a  tropical  plant  grown  in  both  the  East 
and  the  West  Indies,  and  when  made  into  a  bread 


34 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

In  China  rice  is  the  staple  food  of  the  people.     The  grain  is  easily 
grown  (Aid  has  been  cultivated  from  very  ancient  times 

is  eaten  by  the  people  of  those  countries.  Tapioca 
flour  makes  a  wholesome  bread  that  is  eaten  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Central  America  and  South  America. 
The  flour  is  made. from  the  roots  of  the  plant,  and 
is  becoming  very  popular  in  Europe  and  America. 
Sago  bread  is  derived  from  the  pith  found  in  the 
stem  "of  different  varieties  of  the  palm  in  Sumatra, 
Java,  and  Borneo,  and  is  wholesome  for  the  people 
of  those  and  adjoining  islands.  Iceland  moss,  too, 
is  used  as  a  food.  The  Eskimos  purify  the  moss 
by  washing  it,  and  then  make  of  it  a  fine  flour  that 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization  35 

is  easily  made  into  a  bread.  Indian  corn,  or  maize, 
was  the  chief  bread  food  of  the  North  American 
Indians.  It  was  unknown  to  the  Old  World  when 
Columbus  discovered  America,  but  so  important 
has  it  become  that  to-day  it  is  cultivated  on  every 
continent  and  in  almost  every  civilized  country 
on  the  globe. 

Rise  of  the  Baker.  The  preparation  of  the  food 
for  the  dignitaries  of  the  world  has  always  been 
an  important  matter.  You  will  recall  that  while 
Joseph  was  serving  in  the  heuse  of  Pharaoh  he  was 
cast  into  prison.  Later,  the  royal  baker  offended 
his  lord,  the  king  of  Egypt,  and  was  also  cast  into 
prison.  Here  he  had  a  dream  which  Joseph  inter- 
preted. His  dream  is  interesting:  "Behold,  I  had 
three  white  baskets  on  my  head;  and  in  the  upper- 
most basket  there  was  all  manner  of  baked  meats 
for  Pharaoh."  But  in  his  dream  the  birds  picked 
the  food,  and  that  act  foretold  his  doom.  The 
Hebrews,  in  leaving  Egypt,  took  with  them  their 
knowledge  of  bread  making,  but  they  discarded  the 
leavened  bread  of  Egypt  and  made  specific  regula- 
tions concerning  the  preparation  of  bread  "in  the 
ovens  and  in  the  frying  pans." 

The  baker,  however,  became  an  important  person 
when  people  stopped  their  tribal  wanderings  and 
settled  down  to  fixed  ways  of  living.  Greece  had 
the  most  skillful  bakers  in  the  world.  From  that 
country  they  went  to  Rome,  and  the  Greek  baker, 
like  the  Greek  school  teacher,  became  of  importance. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  person  who  could 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Courtesy  of  Schulse  Bakery  Co. 

In  the  preparation  of  clean  food  in  a  modern  American  bakery, 

thousands  of  loaves  are  made  daily,  untouched  by 

the  baker's  hands 

prepare  food  after  the  most  approved  manner  for 
those  who  followed  intellectual  pursuits  was  given 
honor  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  person  who  taught 
or  trained  the  intellect  of  youth.  The  bakers  of 
Rome  formed  an  association,  and  sometimes  one  of 
them  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  senator. 

Bread  was  supposed  to  contain  many  properties, 
according  to  the  mixture  and  preparation.  Hence 
the  baker's  art  was  valuable  as  well  as  important. 
Different  kinds  of  bread  were  prepared  for  different 
people.  The  slave  was  given  a  special  kind,  that 
would  keep  him  humble  and  submissive ;  the  athlete 
another  kind,  that  would  make  him  strong  and 
supple;  princes  and  senators  another  kind,  and  the 
fashionable  ladies  still  another.  Each  was  supposed 
to  give  to  the  individual  eating  it  a  certain  force. 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization 


37 


Courtesy  of  Schulze  Bakery  Co. 

Here  the  bread  is  shown  descending  from  the  oven  room  above  to 

the  cooling  tables,  ready  for  the  automatic 

wrapping  machine 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  baker  went  through 
a  four  years'  apprenticeship,  after  which  he  became 
a  master  baker  and  received  a  license  to  pursue  his 
occupation. 

How  Nations  have  fought  for  Corn.  Man  cannot 
live  without  food,  and  the  great  wars  of  the  world 
have,  in  the  main,  been  wars  of  conquest  for  new 
territory,  new  river  valleys  or  fertile  plains  where 
the  cereals  grow  and  where  the  increasing  population 
may  receive  food  in  plenty.  It  is  an  interesting 
fact  that  civilization  had  its  birth  in  the  great  river 
valleys  of  the  world,  and  that  the  great  nations  of 
the  world  have  been  those  that  controlled  the  rich, 
food-producing  lands. 

We  have  only  a  few  records  of  a  great  civiliza- 
tion that  once  lived  in  the  Euphrates  Valley,  where 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Babylon  and  Nineveh  contended  with  one  another, 
and  where,  it  is  said,  the  wheat  of  the  world  had  its 


The  fertile  valley  of  the  Jordan,  one  of  the  coveted  food-producing 

areas  of  the  ancient  world.     Here  were  given  the  first  lessons 

in  food  selection  and  preparation 

origin.  From  this  very  ancient  beginning,  nations 
have  followed  one  another  in  rapid  succession,  each 
contesting  for  the  great  valleys,  only  to  be  in  turn 
captured  and  destroyed  by  a  more  vigorous  people. 
Jacob's  sons,  driven  by  hunger,  went  down  into  the 
valley  of  the  Nile,  begging  for  food.  Their  descend- 
ants, when  more  than  a  million  strong,  being  held 
captive  by  the  more  powerful  Egyptians,  at  last 
broke  away  from  their  captors.  They  then  recap- 
tured the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  the  land  of  Canaan, 
and  there  was  given  the  first  lesson  in  careful  food 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization  JQ 

selection  and  preparation.  The  book  of  Leviticus 
records  that  the  Children  of  Israel  were  taught  the 
difference  between  clean  and  unclean  food. 

The  Greeks,  their  own  country  overcrowded, 
colonized  the  fertile  districts  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  Romans  went  to  war  with 
the  Carthaginians  for  the  great  grain  fields  of 
Sicily,  and  finally  annexed  the  Nile  Valley  to  their 
great  empire.  The  congested  tribes  along  and 
beyond  the  Danube  River  pressed  down  into  the 
fertile  valleys  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain  and 
overthrew  the  Roman  Empire.  The  wandering 
tribes  from  the  cold  northland  and  from  across  the 
Rhine  overran  France,  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  and  founded  nations  where  the  land  would 
produce  a  food  supply  adequate  for  the  support  of 
the  people. 

Commerce  a  Necessity.  Man's  support  must  come 
from  the  cultivation  of  the  soil.  We  saw  in  the  first 
chapter  how  the  early  tribes  stopped  their  wandering 
life,  settled  down,  built  homes,  tamed  the  wild 
animals,  and  began  to  study  the  land.  When  man 
went  to  work  the  products  derived  from  the  land 
gave  food  and  the  necessities  of  life,  and  nations 
began  to  develop.  Certain  people  acquired  skill 
in  producing  certain  particular  articles  that  other 
people  n,eeded.  Certain  river  valleys  became  cele- 
brated for  the  quantity  of  food  produced,  and 
other  sections  of  the  country  became  famous  for 
the  many  articles  manufactured.  To  bring  about 
an  exchange  of  products,  therefore,  became  desirable 


40  The  Story  of  Corn 

and  necessary,  and  thus  we  have  the  beginning  of 
commerce. 

When  Columbus  was  a  little  boy  the  trade 
between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  between  different 
countries  of  Europe,  had  become  considerable,  and 
from  that  time  wars  have  frequently  been  resorted 
to  in  order  to  increase  trade  and  to  remove  all 
restrictions  upon  it.  In  your  history  you  may 
read  of  the  great  commerce  carried  on  between 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  of  how  dependent  were  the 
European  nations  upon  this  trade  with  India.  You 
may  see  also  how  Venice  and  Genoa  became  great 
cities  because  of  this  trade.  But  when  this  inter- 
course was  stopped  by  the  Mohammedans  it  became 
necessary  to  find  a  new  route  to  India.  It  was  this 
condition  that  caused  Columbus  to  sail  westward. 

A  New  Food.  When  Columbus  landed  in  the 
New  World  he  .thought  he  had  reached  India. 
Therefore  he  called  the  inhabitants  "Indians." 
He  found  the  natives  eating  a  food  made  from  a 
peculiar  grain  unlike  any  produced  in  the  Old 
World,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  the  corn  of  Europe 
we  have  learned  to  call  it  "Indian  corn."  In  1498 
Columbus  observed  large  fields  of  this  grain  growing 
on  the  island  of  Haiti,  and  in  writing  to  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Spain  he  spoke  of  passing  through 
eighteen  miles  of  cornfields.  A  few  years  later 
another  Spaniard,  Hernando  Cortes,  in  describing 
his  march  to  the  City  of  Mexico  spoke  of  passing 
through  great  fields  of  corn,  and  nearly  every 
explorer  of  this  new  world  noticed  this  peculiar 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization 


plant  with  its  queer-shaped  ears  of  corn.  It  is 
little  wonder  that  they  took  special  notice  of  it, 
since  all  the  grain  cultivated  in  Europe  was  similar 
to  wheat,  oats,  or  rye.  The  corn  of  the  Indians  was 
a  'curiosity. 

Early  English  explorers,  in  writing  about  it, 
described  it  as  follows:  "The  graine  is  about  the 
bignesse  of  our  ordinary  English  pease,  and  not 
much  different  in  form 
and  shape,  but  of  divers 
colours;  some  white,  some 
red,  and  some  blue.  All  of 
these  yielde  a  very  white 
sweet  flavoure,  and  being 
used  according  to  its  kind, 
it  maketh  a  vety  good 
bread." 

The  inhabitants  of  Haiti 
called  the  grain  mahiz, 
hence  the  name  "maize," 

and    European    nations      An  Indian  community  corn 
,       .  .,  bin,  Mexico 

when  referring  to  it  to- 
day still  call  it  maize.  Many  authorities  believe 
that  the  grain  originated  in  Mexico  and  took  its 
name  from  a  tribe  of  Indians  living  in  southern 
Mexico.  But  when  Columbus  discovered  America 
it  was  the  leading  food  of  the  Indians  from  the 
arctic  circle  to  the  torrid  zone.  The  grain,  however, 
was  so  unlike  the  cereals  of  the  Old  World  that  the 
Europeans  did  not  think  of  using  it  as  a  food.  They 
watched  the  Indians  parch  it  or  pound  it  into  meal, 


From  Mace's  "Stories  of  Heroism" 


42  Tftc  Story  of  Corn 

but  the  bread  made  from  it  was  not  so  pleasing  to  the 
taste  as  the  European  bread,  and  the  early  explorers 
ate  it  only  when  starvation  threatened.  Over  a  hun- 
dred years  passed  after  Columbus's  great  discovery 
before  the  settlers  from  Europe  learned  its  real  value. 
This  corn  of  the  Indians,  however,  was  the  one 
grain  that  was  to  make  America  prosperous  and  end 
the  great  famines  of  the  world.  It  was  this  grain 
that  saved  the  first  colonies  along  the  coast,  and 
supported  the  pioneers  as  they  pressed  westward; 
and  the  grain  that  fed  the  Indians  was  to  provide 
food  for  the  early  settlers  as  they  drove  the  Indians 
from  the  river  valleys  along  the  coast  to  the  lands 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  When  the  coastal  plain 
was  settled  and  all  its  river  valleys  taken  up,  the 
population  still  pressed  westward,  fighting  the 
Indians  and  the  wild  beasts,  until  the  fertile  valleys 
of  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries  were  reached. 
It  took  nearly  two  centuries  and  a  half,  after  the 
first  settlement  at  Jamestown,  for  the  white  man  to 
take  possession  of  this  great  river  valley  and  send 
its  products  to  the  markets  of  the  world.  Not  since 
the  Nile  Valley  fed  so  many  nations  has  so  large  a 
part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  been  fed  from 
one  great  river  valley.  It  was  maize,  this  Indian 
corn,  that  gave  strength  to  the  settlers  in  their 
conquest  of  the  New  World;  and  after  this  great 
valley  was  opened  it  was  maize,  this  same  Indian 
corn,  at  first  despised  by  the  Europeans,  that  made 
the  Mississippi  Valley  the  food  center  of  America 
and  the  granary  of  the  world. 


Food  a  Factor  in  Civilization  43 

How  did  the  people  provide  against  famine  before 
Indian  corn  was  discovered?  The  story  as  told  in 
the  following  chapter  explains  how  difficult  it  was 
for  the  nations  of  Europe  to  provide  sufficient  food 
before  this  great  cereal  was  given  to  the  civilized 
world.  And  if  this  one  grain  that  Columbus  found 
on  the  island  of  Haiti  were  suddenly  taken  from 
the  world,  famine  and  pestilence  would  again  stalk 
abroad  in  the  land  and  the  progress  of  the  world 
would  come  suddenly  to  a  standstill. 


CHAPTER  IV 


Evils  due  to  Insufficient  Food.  Of  all  the  plagues 
and  scourges  that  have  visited  the  peoples  of  the 
world,  none  have  been  so  fearful  and  so  fatal  as 
the  great  famines,  and  nothing  so  places  man  at  the 
mercy  of  disease  as  insufficient  food.  In  India  when 
the  grain  supply  has  been  insufficient,  disease  has 
always  been  rampant;  and  since  hardly  a  year 
passes  that  some  sections  of  that  country  are  not 
visited  by  a  famine,  India  has  come  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  home  of  the  great  plagues  of  the  world. 
China,  too,  with  its  poorly  cultivated  land,  its 
dense  population,  its  inferior  means  of  transporta- 
tion, constantly  faces  the  menace  of  famine  and  the 
resultant  spread  of  disease.  When  the  potato  crop 
failed  in  Ireland,  disease  crept  in  during  the  period 
of  scarcity.  Much  of  the  illness  of  the  soldiers  in 
the  great  wars  of  the  world,  and  of  the  inhabitants 
who  have  suffered  the  ravages  of  devastating  armies, 
has  been  due  to  insufficient  food.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  pestilence  and  the  plagues  were  always 
worse  when  food  was  scarce. 

It  is  said  that  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  people 
in  the  larger  cities  of  the  world  are  barely  able 
to  secure  food^  clothing,  and  shelter  sufficient  to 

44 


A  New  Continent  and  the  World's  Food  Supply    45 

protect  them  from  actual  want.     Wherever  man  is 
unable  to  provide  the  bare  necessities  of  life  for 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Canton,  China,  -where  400,000  people  live  in  river  boats.     This 
densely  peopled  land,  badly  cultivated,  with  poor   trans- 
portation facilities,  is  in  constant  danger  of  famine 

himself  and  family  we  have  a  breeding  ground  for 
disease  that  threatens  the  whole  population,  and  a 
people  ready  to  entertain  any  pernicious  religious 
or  political  doctrine  that  may  tend  to  overturn  the 
existing  order  of  things.  Therefore  any  shortage 
of,  or  any  sudden  rise  in  the  cost. of,  food  products, 
due  either  to  political  or  to  economic  conditions,  has  a 
tendency  to  upset  the  social  institutions  of  the  world. 
The  Cause  of  Famines.  Two  thousand  years  ago 
all  the  races  of  Europe,  except  those  living  along 


46  The  Story  of  Corn 

the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean,  were  composed  of 
ignorant  and  warlike  tribes.  When  they  settled 
in  different  sections  of  Europe,  built  homes,  cleared 
the  land,  and  began  raising  their  own  foodstuffs, 
they  were  dependent  for  their  food  supply  upon 
their  own  farms  or  the  neighboring  forest.  The 
products  of  other  countries  did  not  come  to  them 
as  they  do  to  us  to-day.  There  were  no  steamboats 
or  large  vessels  to  carry  food  from  one  continent 
to  another;  there  were  no  railroads  with  long  trains 
of  cars  to  carry  the  necessities  of  life  from  one  sec- 
tion of  the  country  to  another.  In  fact,  there  were 
few  roads  over  which  even  horses  or  oxen  could  pull 
heavy  loads  of  merchandise.  If  a  town  was  located 
on  the  coast  or  on  a  navigable  river  it  had  some 
advantage,  for  light  sailing  vessels  could  reach  it. 
But  settlements  away  from  the  coast  or  back  from 
the  streams  were  dependent  upon  their  own  products. 

Foodstuffs  were  too  bulky  and  heavy  for  the 
commerce  of  the  time.  Therefore  the  traders  who 
passed  from  one  country  to  another  dealt  chiefly 
in  the  luxuries  of  the  rich  or  in  commodities  which 
had  a  high  value.  You  will  recall  that  the  long 
line  of  camels  carrying  goods  from  India  and  China 
to  the  European  peoples,  before  Columbus  dis- 
covered America,  transported  only  the  lighter 
goods,  such  as  spices,  perfumery,  and  fine  cloth. 
The  great  laboring  classes  were  not  benefited  to 
any  great  extent  by  this  trade. 

Moreover,  each  nation  as  a  rule  produced  only 
one  grain,  on  which  the  people  relied  for  food.  It 


A  New  Continent  and  the  World's  Food  Supply    47 

is  difficult   to-day   for  us   to   understand   the   full 
meaning  of  this  fact,  since  we  have  two  leading 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Cnderwood,  N.  Y. 

A  caravan  crossing  the  desert.     Two  thousand  years  ago  such 
camel  trains  afforded  the  chief  means  of  transportation 

cereals,  wheat  and  Indian  corn,  and  if  one  fails  the 
other  is  produced  in  sufficient  quantities  to  provide 
against  famine.  But  before  America  was  discovered, 
when  the  leading  crop  of  a  country  failed  the  people 
were  without  bread ;  animals,  too,  suffered,  and  so  the 
meat  supply  also  became  exhausted.  The  means  of 
transportation  being  so  poor,  bread  could  not  be  car- 
ried easily  from  one  nation  to  another,  and  famine 
appeared  in  the  land. 

The  Famines  of  the  World  before  America  was 
settled.  The  following  table  gives  the  dates  of  the 
great  famines  before  the  lands  of  a  new  continent 


48  The  Story  of  Corn 

were  cultivated  and  before  a  new  cereal  was  given 
to  the  world: 

B.C.  1708-1701  Egypt  and  adjoining  civilizations. 

B.C.  436  Rome  and  the  country  bordering  the  Medi- 

terranean Sea. 

A.D.  42  Egypt  especially;  but  since  Egypt  was  the 

granary  of  the  world  it  affected  much  of  the 
civilized  world. 

A.D.  262-72        Rome  and  England  were  especially  affected. 

A.D.  879  A  universal  famine  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

Men,  women,  and  children  were  sold  into 
slavery  for  the  price  of  a  day's  meal. 

A.D.  1016  Throughout  Europe.  For  the  five  years  follow- 

ing not  a  country  in  Europe  could  be  named 
that  was  not  destitute  of  bread. 

A.D.  1162  Universal  famine  in  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia. 

Human  flesh  was  eaten,  and  sometimes  sold 
in  the  markets  of  Europe. 

A.D.  1314-15  All  northern  Europe  and  England.  This  was 
the  "great  famine"  of  England;  wages  re- 
ceived a  permanent  rise  owing  to  the  scarcity 
of  labor. 

A.D.  1586-1600  Within  this  period  famines  swept  over  the 
British  Isles,  India,  Russia,  and  other  parts 
of  northern  Europe. 

In  addition  to  these  widespread  famines,  hardly 
a  year  passed  that  some  nation  was  not  visited  by 
a  shortage  of  food.  A  poor  crop  due  to  excessive 
or  insufficient  rainfall,  or  to  the  ravages  of  insects, 
would  throw  the  entire  community  into  a  destitute 
condition.  And  the  absence  of  adequate  transporta- 
tion facilities  made  it  impossible  for  the  inhabitants 
to  import  food  in  sufficient  quantities  to  provide 
against  starvation. 


A  New  Continent  and  the  World's  Food  Supply    49 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

The  story  of  a  seven  years'  famine  in  Egypt  in  prehistoric  times 

is  told  on  these  stones  found  on  an  island  in  the 

Upper  Nile  River,  above  Assuan 

The  Famines  of  the  World  since  America  was 
settled.  In  studying  the  table  of  famines  since 
America  was  settled,  it  is  important  that  we  notice 


50  The  Story  of  Corn 

especially  what  countries  have  been  most  affected 
and  the  small  areas  visited  in  the  more  enlightened 
nations.  Notice  how  the  more  civilized  nations 
have  finally  ceased  to  be  afflicted  with  this  disaster, 
and  observe  at  the  same  time  the  few  countries  that 
are  visited  to-day. 

1631  India  and  Asia  in  general. 

1711  Austria-Hungary. 

1769^-71      India.     (10,000,000  starved  in  Bengal.) 

1775  Cape  Verde  Islands. 

1781-83      India.     (8,000,000  perished.) 

1789  Parts  of  France.  (This  was  during  the  French 

Revolution.) 

1790-91  India,  the  "skull  famine."  (So  many  people  per- 
ished they  could  not  be  buried.) 

1 795-97  Parts  of  England.  (This  was  during  the  great 
European  wars.) 

1846  Ireland.  (Due  to  the  failure  of  the  potato  and 

wheat  crops.  Caused  the  repeal  of  the  "corn 
laws"  in  England.) 

1870  Persia. 

1 873-75      Asia  Minor  and  India. 

1877,  79,  88,  89    China. 

1891-92      Russia. 

1899-1901  India.     (1,000,000  perished.) 

1911-12      Russia. 

We  observe  that  few  famines  have  visited  the 
enlightened  nations  since  America  was  settled, 
and  even  these  were  of  a  local  nature,  and  attrib- 
utable, in  large  measure,  to  the  fierce  wars  of 
the  times.  A  great  famine,  such  as  appeared  in 
Europe  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century,  has 
not  returned  to  scourge  the  civilized  world  since 
America  was  opened  up  and  a  new  source  of  food 


A  New  Continent  and  the  World's  Food  Supply    51 


supply   given   to  the  world.-    On  the  other  hand, 
observe  how  destructive  have  been  the  famines  in 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Primitive  cultivation  of  the  soil,  China.     This  plow  turns  a  furrow 
only  six  inches  wide 

India,  China,  and  certain  parts  of  Russia.  These 
countries,  with  their  overcrowded  population,  poor 
transportation  facilities,  primitive  methods  of  culti- 
vating the  soil,  and  lack  of  intercourse  with  rapidly 
developing  nations  of  the  world,  have  remained 
almost  as  backward  as  were  the  nations  of  Europe 
a  thousand  years  ago;  so  the  evils  that  came 
to  Europe  so  many  centuries  ago  still  afflict  the 
inhabitants  of  these  unprogressive  countries. 

Relation  of  Commerce  to  the  Food  Supply.  The 
discovery  of  America  at  the  close  of  the  fifteenth 
century  was  an  incentive  to  commercial  activity. 
The  world  wished  to  know  more  of  this  new  conti- 
nent, and  the  spirit  of  adventure  was  abroad  among 


R  V 


L_  I  Q  R 

f  >  t  K.OKHM.   c'v 

'      '  't 


52  The  Story  of  Corn 

the  nations.  Larger  vessels  were  built;  daring 
seamen  were  no  longer  afraid  to  lose  sight  of  land; 
and  idle  men  in  the  large  cities  of  Europe  caught  the 
spirit  of  adventure  and  embarked  for  the  New  World. 
Commerce  was  now  shifted  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Stronger  vessels  were 
needed  to  sail  the  seas,  and  the  art  of  shipbuilding 
became  more  highly  developed.  As  larger  vessels 
were  built,  heavier  cargoes  were  transported  in 
them,  and  vessels  were  soon  carrying  needed  foods 
to  Europe.  Within  a  short  time  after  Columbus 
discovered  America,  tropical  fruits  found  in  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America  were  sold  in  the 
streets  of  London,  and  a  new  era  in  transportation 
had  begun.  Vessels  were  now  beginning  to  carry 
food  from  one  country  to  another;  nations  came 
closer  and  closer  together,  and  men  became  more 
familiar  with  the  habits  of  their  fellow  beings  in 
different  parts  of  the  earth. 

As  commerce  increased,  famines  sweeping  over 
large  areas  grew  less  and  less  frequent,  for  the  sur- 
plus food  supply  of  one  people  could  now  be  trans- 
ported to  the  famished  districts  of  other  parts  of  the 
globe.  People  living  away  from  the  coast  or  the 
navigable  rivers  saw  the  necessity  of  building  better 
roads.  Stronger  vehicles,  such  as  wagons  and  car- 
riages of  various  kinds,  were  built,  and  the  com- 
merce of  the  world  began  to  reach  the  interior 
settlements  and  to  draw  them  closer  to  the  world- 
markets. 

From  the  discovery  of  America  to  the  present 


A  New  Continent  and  the  World's  Food  Supply    53 


time,  trade  in  the  necessities  of  life  has  increased 
more  and  more.     To-day  a  very  large  part  of  the 


A  Mexican  oxcart.    With  the  coming  of  the  crude  but  strong  oxcart 

the  commerce  of  the  world  began  to  reach 
f  interior  settlements 

commerce  of  the  world  consists  of  articles  in  general 
use,  such  as  wheat,  corn,  rice,  bacon,  hams,  butter, 
cheese,  cotton,  wool,  iron  wares,  and  leather.  By 
comparing  the  commerce  of  to-day  with  that  of 
ancient  times  we  can  see  how  the  world  is  becoming 
more  united,  and  the  great  extent  to  which  each 
section  of  the  globe  is  dependent  upon  other  sections 
for  articles  in  daily  use. 

Why  Universal  Famines  have  not  occurred 
since  1600.  It  will  be  remembered  that  America 
was  discovered  in  1492  and  that  throughout  the 


A  New  Continent  and  the  World's  Food  Supply    55 

century  from  1500  to  1600  the  principal  nations  of 
Europe  were  exploring  this  new  continent  and 
dividing  it  among  themselves.  New  foods  were 
discovered  and  carried  to  Europe.  The  potato 
became  an  important  food,  especially  in  England 
and  Ireland.  So  important  did  it  become  in  Ireland 
that  it  is  now  known  as  the  "Irish  potato."  More- 
over, the  great  famines  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  the  accompanying  plagues, 
had  considerably  reduced  the  population  in  those 
countries  where  the  famine  was  most  severe.  With 
the  opening  of  the  new  century  Europe  began  to 
send  her  surplus  population  to  America;  and  then 
another  food,  of  far  greater  importance  than  the 
potato,  was  given  to  the  white  race, — the  corn  or 
maize  of  the  Indians.  These  two  new  foods,  to- 
gether with  the  great  fisheries  along  the  coasts  of 
America,  increased  the  food  supply  of  the  world. 

f  he  science  of  agriculture,  moreover,  now  began 
to  play  an  important  part.  Indian  corn  became  the 
leading  cereal  of  America.  It  was  so  easily  culti- 
vated, and  it  could  be  produced  in  such  quantities, 
that  the  earliest  colonists  relied  on  it  almost  entirely 
for  food.  With  it  they  could  produce  hogs  and 
cattle  in  abundance.  Therefore  bread  and  meat 
became  cheaper  than  ever  before.  It  is  no  wonder 
that  by  the  poor  of  Europe  this  new  world  was 
looked  upon  as  the  Promised  Land. 

The  $tew  Continent.  Columbus  sought  a  route 
to  India>  where  spices,  precious  stones,  fine  fabrics, 
and  all  the  luxuries  of  the  rich  were  found,  but 


5  6  The  Story  of  Corn 

instead  of  reaching  India  he  discovered  a  new  world. 
Two  great  continents,  heretofore  unknown  to  the 
wisest  men  of  Europe,  lay  across  the  ocean  route 
to  India.  Here  gold  and  silver  were  first  found  in 
abundance,  and  for  many  years  the  adventurous 
Europeans  thought  only  of  these  precious  metals. 
But  in  the  northern  continent,  now  known  as  North 
America,  there  were  river  valleys  more  fertile  than 
the  ancient  valleys  where  great  civilizations  had 
flourished.  When  hardy  explorers  such  as  Cortes, 
De  Soto,  Drake,  Gosnold,  and  Cartier  were  studying 
this  new  world,  little  did  they  realize  its  vast  possi- 
bilities. They  could  not,  of  course,  see  that  Indian 
corn  and  its  products  would  one  day  become  more 
valuable  than  any  other  agricultural  product  to 
the  commerce  of  America.  They  could  not  even 
estimate  the  importance  of  the  great  Mississippi 
Valley  to  the  hungry  people  of  Europe.  Little  did 
they  dream  that  they  had  found  a  land  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  Europe,  and  possessing  fertile 
valleys  that  would  become  the  homes  of  millions 
of  Europeans  and  their  descendants,  and  supply 
wholesome  food  for  mapy  more  millions. 

America  gave  millions  of  square  miles  of  rich 
farming  lands  which  were  to  produce  tremendous 
quantities  of  foodstuff.  This  in  turn  created  many 
new  demands.  Larger  and  swifter-moving  vessels 
were  needed  to  transport  thousands  of  people  from 
the  Old  to  the  New  World  and  tot  carry  back  to  the 
Old  World  the  abundant  yield  of  the  rich  valleys 
of  the  West. 


CHAPTER  V 
A  NEW  CONTINENT  AND  A  NEW  FOOD 

Interest  in  the  New  World.  Nearly  a  hundred 
years  passed  after  Columbus  discovered  America 
before  any  European  nation  succeeded  in  locating 
a  colony  in  what  is  known  to-day  as  the  United 
States.  The  explanation  of  this  delay  is  to  be  found 
in  the  geography  of  the  world  at  that  time  and  in 
the  limited  and  slow  methods  of  transportation. 
In  those  days,  when  it  required  three  months  and 
sometimes  longer  to  cross  the  Atlantic,  this  new 
world  was  far  removed  from  the  civilization  of 
Europe. 

When  the  news  was  told  in  Europe  that  a  new 
continent  had  been  discovered,  and  that  it  contained 
all  manner  of  game  and  large  quantities  of  gold  and 
silver,  you  can  imagine  the  sensation  that  was 
created.  Notwithstanding  the  difficulty  in  crossing 
the  Atlantic,  every  nation  became  intensely  inter- 
ested at  once.  Exploring  parties  were  sent  out,  some 
to  hunt  for  gold  and  silver,  others  to  bring  back 
furs,  and  still  others,  merely  to  explore  the  new 
country  and  to  study  its  peculiar  inhabitants. 
Europe  soon  lost  interest  in  India.  The  old  caravan 
routes  declined  in  importance,  and  the  nations  of 
Europe  became  active  in  building  and  fitting  out 
vessels  that  could  make  the  trip  across  the  Atlantic. 

57 


58  The  Story  of  Corn 

The  Wealth  of  the  New  World.  It  would  be 
interesting  to  follow  the  exploring  parties  from  the 
European  ports  into  this  remarkable  new  world. 
Exciting  expeditions  and  thrilling  adventures  fill  the 
period  of  the  first  hundred  years  after  its  discovery. 
The  Spaniard  enriching  himself  with  the  abun- 
dance of  gold  found  in  the  palace  of  the  Aztecs  in 
Mexico,  and  the  natives  of  South  America  living  in 
mountains  rich  in  silver,  excited  the  imagination 
of  the  explorers  to  such  a  degree  that  they  were 
ready  to  believe  any  tale,  however  wild  or  fanciful. 
And  many  were  the  tales  that  were  told — tales  of 
fountains  of  crystal  water,  pure  and  life-giving,  that 
would  restore  youth  and  make  it  perpetual;  of 
rivers  that  flowed  from  ocean  to  ocean ;  of  the  fabled 
cities  of  Cibola  filled  with  gold  and  silver.  These 
and  many  other  stories  excited  the  adventurous  spirit 
of  all  the  Europeans.  Vessel  after  vessel  set  out 
for  the  New  World,  and  during  these  hundred  years 
explorers  crossed  and  recrossed  the  continent  and 
tramped  up  and  down  the  coast,  along  the  valleys, 
and  over  the  mountains,  talking  with  the  Indians 
and  studying  signs  and  stories,  in  their  search  for 
wealth  or  for  the  fabled  Fountain  of  Youth.  Spain 
profited  most,  for  there  was  really  an  abundance 
of  gold  and  silver  very  easily  obtained  in  Mexico 
and  South  America.  Therefore  Spanish  adventurers 
confined  their  explorations  to  this  section  of  the 
New  World. 

As  these  adventurers  and  wealth  seekers  told 
their  wonderful  stories  to  an  astonished  world,  they 


A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food 


59 


thought  little  of  the  peculiar  grain  that  the  Indians 
gave  them  to  eat  when  they  were  hungry.     Little 


An  Aztec  calendar  carved  on  stone.     This  calendar  doubtless 
governed  the  time  of  planting  and  harvesting  of  maize 

did  they  dream  at  that  time  that  the  little  green 
blades  of  maize,  as  they  pushed  up  through  the 
rough  and  poorly  cultivated  soil,  had  the  power  to 
draw  from  the  darkness  of  the  earth  beneath  more 


60  The  Story  of  Corn 

wealth  than  could  be  dug  from  allHhe  mines,  and 
that  it  had  more  health-giving  properties  than  all  the 
fabled  cities  or  Fountains  of  Youth.  For  the  time, 
they  thought  little  of  this  new  food  and  would  eat 
it  only  when  they  were  in  a  famished  condition. 

How  America  was  divided  among  the  Europeans. 
The  spirit  of  adventure  was  abroad.  It  was  natural, 
therefore,  that  the  ownership  of  this  new  continent 
should  become  in  time  an  important  question. 
When  this  question  came  to  be  decided  the  claim 
of  each  nation  was  made  to  rest  largely  upon  the 
priority  of  discovery.  Spain  discovered  and  explored 
what  is  now  the  West  Indies,  Florida,  Louisiana, 
Texas,  and  Mexico.  Therefore  this  territory  was 
claimed  by  the  Spaniards,  and  it  was  here  that  the 
Spaniards  settled.  English  seamen,  under  the  Cabots 
and  others,  discovered  and  explored  the  strip  along 
the  Atlantic  coast  from  Florida  to  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Hence  the  English  claimed  this  part  of  the  New 
World,  and  it  was  here  that  the  English  settled. 
The.  French  discovered  and  explored  the  valley  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  a  portion  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
it  was  this  territory  that  the  French  claimed.  Thus 
the  first  hundred  years  were  spent  in  exploring  or 
obtaining  wealth  from  the  New  World.  The  map 
given  on  the  next  page  shows  the  sections  of  the 
continent  claimed  by  the  leading  nations  of  Europe. 

The  First  English  Settlement.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  England  presented  many 
difficulties  to  her  laboring  population.  Europe  at 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Showing  claims  based  on 
Discovery, Exploration,and 
Occupancy,  in  /6jo. 
SCALE  OF  MILES- 


Copyright,  iqit>,  by  Rand  McXally  &•  Co 

North  America  in  1650 


pany 


62  The  Story  of  Corn 

that  time  was  just  recovering  from  a  great  famine 
that  had  affected  almost  every  country.  Moreover, 
Europe  was  soon  to  be  convulsed  by  a  continental 
war  destined  to  last  for  nearly  half  a  century,  and 
war  falls  heaviest  on  the  laboring  man  who  receives 
scanty  wages  and  enjoys  few  luxuries.  There  was  a 
great  demand  for  wool  in  England  to  supply  the 
factories,  and  farming  land  was  giving  way  to 
pasture  land.  As  a  result,  vast  areas  of  tilled  land 
were  taken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  tenant  farmers 
and  converted  into  sheep  pastures;  peasant  farmers 
lost  their  holdings,  while  farm  laborers  were  thrown 
out  of  employment  and  in  many  instances  knew  not 
where  to  look  for  work .  Political  conditions  in  France 
had  driven  out  of  that  country  many  of  the  leading 
weavers  and  spinners.  In  every  European  country, 
labor  conditions  were  disturbed.  Throughout  the 
seventeenth  century  the  political  conditions  affecting 
labor,  the  many  wars  that  were  sweeping  over  the 
countries,  the  changes  in  manner  of  living,  and 
religious  intolerance,  all  contributed  to  the  settlement 
and  growth  of  the  American  continent. 

The  success  of  the  Spaniards  had  set  every  country 
wild  over  the  prospects  of  great  wealth  to  be  found 
in  this  new  land.  But  the  English  were  free  to  settle 
only  that  portion  of  the  new  continent  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  between  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 
Florida,  where  no  gold  was  to  be  found.  Because 
of  this,  several  commercial  companies,  seeing  the 
unsettled  labor  conditions  in  Europe,  conceived  the 
idea  of  settling  colonies  of  people  along  the  fertile 


A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food  63 

valleys  of  the  coast  and  deriving  a  considerable 
revenue  from  the  trade  growing  out  of  their  prod- 
ucts of  the  soil,  forest,  and  mountains.  With  this 
intention  the  companies  obtained  large  grants  of 
land  from  the  king,  equipped  some  small  sailing 
vessels,  rilled  them  with  families,  and  in  1607 
started  them  on  the  first  voyage  to  a  country 
three  thousand  miles  from  home.  One  unsuccessful 


The  ruins  of  Jamestown  as  they  appeared  in  1857.     Here  in  1607 
was  made  the  first  permanent  English  settlement  in  A  merica 

attempt  to  plant  a  colony  on  Roanoke  Island  had 
been  made  a  quarter  of  a  century  before.  This  time 
the  expedition  entered  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  landed  on  a  little  peninsula,  now  an  island, 
a  short  distance  up  the  bay.  On  this  island  was 
founded  the  Jamestown  colony. 

Early  Difficulties.  This  settlement  consisted  at 
first  of  about  a  hundred  people.  Of  this  number 
the  majority  were  classed  as  gentlemen ;  only  twelve 


64  The  Story  of  Corn 

men  in  the  whole  company  were  laborers  who  knew 
anything  at  all  about  tilling  the  soil  or  were  accus- 
tomed to  hard  work.  It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore, 
that  such  a  company,  locating  in  a  country  infested 
with  bears,  wolves,  and  hostile  Indians,  would  meet 
with  many  difficulties.  The  soil  was  new  to  them; 
the  climate  was  different  from  that  to  which  they 
were  accustomed ;  they  were  located  in  an  unhealthy 
region  and  were  without  houses  in  which  to  live. 
.No  wonder  they  did  not  settle  down  to  orderly 
work,  but  spent  their  time  looking  for  gold,  rather 
than  planting  crops.  Many  died  of  fever,  and 
before  the  summer  was  over  only  about  half  of  those 
who  had  come  over  survived,  and  even  these  did  not 
have  enough  food  to  last  until  harvest  should  come 
again.  However,  another  vessel  came  soon,  bring- 
ing other  colonists,  together  with  supplies,  and  the 
number  was  increased  to  about  two  hundred.  The 
settlers  were  necessarily  slow  in  adjusting  themselves 
to  their  new  surroundings,  and  they  soon  began  to 
complain  against  their  fate. 

No  wonder  the  little  colony  in  Virginia  felt  a 
loneliness  and  a  longing  for  the  home  folks  in 
Europe  as  the  gloomy  Atlantic  moaned  and  rolled 
along  the  coast,  and  the  deep,  sighing  forest  seemingly 
stretched  almost  to  Eternity.  Like  the  ancient 
Hebrews  who,  in  the  face  of  the  hardships  of  the 
wilderness,  rebelled  against  their  leader  and  requested 
him  to  take  them  back  into  slavery  rather  than 
forward  into  an  unknown  future,  so  the  first  settlers 
in  America  complained  against  their  lot,  and  did 


A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food  65 

little  at  first  to  improve  their  new  and  strange 
surroundings.  They  killed  the  cattle  and  the  sheep, 
exhausted  the  food  supply,  and  then  begged  for  per- 
mission to  go  back  to  England. 

How  a  New  Food  was  given  to  the  World.  It 
was  the  courage  of  a  great  leader  that  saved  them. 
Captain  John  Smith  faced  the  situation  and  forced 
all  to  work.  Said  he,  "Every  man  that  gathereth 
not  as  much  as  I  do  every  day,  the  next  day  shall 
be  set  beyond  the  river  and  forever  banished  from 
the  fort."  All  around  the  settlers  was  food  in 
abundance,  but  it  was  so  unlike  the  European  food 
that  they  were  slow  to  adopt  it.  They  saw  the  grain 
from  which  this  food  was  made  growing  around  the 
Indian  wigwams.  They  were  told  that  this  precious 
grain,  when  parched  and  crushed  into  a  fine  powder, 
would  sustain  life  longer  than  any  other  similar 
amount  of  food;  that  the  Indians  in  preparing  for 
a  long  journey  filled  their  belts  with  it  and  lived  on 
it  almost  exclusively.  They  were  told,  furthermore, 
that  a  small  pinch  of  it,  taken  at  frequent  intervals 
during  the  day,  would  give  the  traveler  strength 
and  endurance  either  to  make  long  journeys  or  to 
undergo  great  hardships. 

John  Smith  had  gone  among  the  Indians  and 
learned  from  them  how  to  use  this  new  grain,  and 
when  the  supplies  sent  over  from  England  were 
exhausted,  Smith  and  his  men  fell  back  as  a  last 
resort  on  this  Indian  food.  Every  man  was  imme- 
diately given  an  acre  of  ground  and  instructed  to 
"set  corn"  in  it,  In  the  meantime  the  settlers 


66  The  Story  of  Corn 

traded  with  the  Indians,  and  thereby  kept  them- 
selves supplied  with  food  until  their  crops  could  be 
harvested.  In  this  way  they  were  saved  from 
starvation.  The  early  history  of  America  contains 
many  descriptions  of  the  cultivation  of  corn,  and 
many  Indian  stories  of  its  wonderful  value.  The 
feast  of  the  new  corn,  which  occurred  during  the 
harvest  moon,  was  the  great  thanksgiving  holiday 
of  the  Indians,  and  for  several  days  the  savages 
gave  themselves  up  to  unrestrained  revelry,  and 
great  rejoicings  for  the  kindness  of  the  Great  Spirit 
in  sending  the  grain.  The  white  men  at  Jamestown 
learned  to  appreciate  the  great  value  of  this  new 
food.  It  was  so  easily  cultivated  that  the  colonists 
soon  had  food  in  plenty,  and  from  those  early  days 
to  the  present  time  the  people  of  Jamestown  and 
their  descendants  have  never  been  close  to  a  great 
famine. 

How  the  Pilgrim  Colony  was  saved.  You  will 
recall  that  the  next  English  settlement  was  made 
at  Plymouth.  This  little  party  of  settlers  landed 
December  21,  1620.  Although  it  was  winter,  the 
men  began  immediately  to  chop  down  trees  to  build 
a  great  log  storehouse.  Then  they  began  building 
homes.  The  first  winter  in  the  cold  northland  was 
the  saddest  the  Pilgrims  had  ever  known.  Before 
the  warm  spring  days  came  one  half  of  the  little 
band  had  perished,  among  them  their  governor. 
In  that  dreadful  winter  the  Pilgrims  bought  "eight 
hogsheads  of  corn  and  beans"  from  their  Indian 
neighbors,  and  when  spring  arrived  a  friendly  Indian 


A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food  67 

named  Squanto  taught  them  how  to  plant  the  new 
grain.     He    showed   them   how   to    fertilize   it   by 


Plymouth  Harbor,  where  the  Pilgrims  landed  December,  1620 

putting  dead  fish  into  the  hills,  how  to  hoe  the 
plant,  and  how  to  pound  the  ears  into  meal.  The 
new  plant  grew  in  the  cold  northland  as  well  as 
in  the  river  valleys  of  the  warm  southland,  and 
when  the  first  summer  was  over  and  the  Pilgrims 
had  gathered  their  first  harvest,  there  was  food 
in  plenty.  The  colonists,  therefore,  decided  that 
a  time  for  rejoicing  and  thanksgiving  had  come  to 
them,  too.  So,  inviting  the  friendly  Indians  who 
had  done  so  much  for  them,  for  three  days  they 
rejoiced  and  gave  thanks.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  our  custom  of  having  a  day  of  thanksgiving  each 
year.  Thus  it  came  to  pass  that  a  new  continent 
gave  fertile  land  and  homes  to  the  people  of  an  over- 
crowded nation,  and  a  new  food  of  great  value  to 
those  who  before  they  came  to  America  had  faced 
starvation  in  Europe. 


68  The  Story  of  Corn 

How   the   First   Settlers   depended   upon   Corn. 

The  first  settlers  were  no  doubt  surprised  to  find 
that  this  new  grain,  so  easily  cultivated  along  the 
coast,  would  yield  so  abundantly.  The  colonists 
at  Jamestown  first  tried  to  cultivate  wheat,  but  for 
many  years  met  with  little  success.  In  fact,  a  new 
variety  had  to  be  developed  suitable  to  the  soil 
and  climate  of  the  New  World,  and  it  required  a 
number  of  years  to  produce  such  a  variety.  In  the 
meantime  the  settlers  had  to  study  the  new  grain 
that  the  Indians  used  for  food.  Of  course  the 
bread  made  from  it  was  not  so  pleasing  at  first 
as  that  made  from  the  grain  of  the  old  country, 
but  it  was  wholesome  and  really  not  unpleasant. 
Moreover,  the  settlers  found  it  very  easy  to  raise 
this  new  grain.  One  man,  with  little  or  no  assistance, 
could  produce  enough  to  support  himself  and  his 
family  and  still  have  a  surplus.  Having  his  bread 
thus  easily  provided,  he  could  go  into  the  forest 
and  with  his  rifle  secure  animal  food  in  abundance, 
at  the  same  time  obtaining  skins  for  clothing. 
Hides,  tobacco,  and  the  surplus  corn  were  bringing 
great  prosperity  to  the  colonists.  The  chief  source 
of  their  wealth,  however,  was  this  new  grain  that 
they  had  found  growing  around  the  wigwams.  So 
important  was  it  that  it  soon  became  one  of  the 
leading  articles  of  trade.  Taxes,  marriage  licenses, 
rents,  and  other  debts  were  paid  in  it,  since  little 
money  was  in  circulation  among  the  early  colonists. 
The  one  important  fact  to  remember  in  connection 
with  the  first  settlements  is  that  the  wealth  of  the 


A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food  6p 

New  World  was  locked  up  in  the  soil.  Spain  thought 
it  was  in  the  gold  and  silver,  and  France  thought  it 
was  in  the  fisheries  and  furs;  but  the  English,  after 
facing  starvation,  turned  to  the  soil  for  support, 
and  they  discovered  after  many  hardships  that  the 
soil  of  the  New  World  was  rich  enough  to  support 
the  hungry  hordes  of  Europe.  The  first  settlers, 
therefore,  became  farmers,  and  their  success  and 
continued  prosperity  brought  over  thousands  from 
Europe  until  settlements  were  made  along  the  coast 
from  Maine  to  Georgia. 

Two  Stories.  A  writer  gives  this  account  of  the 
importance  of  corn  to  the  early  colonists:  "It  is 
common  to  see  men  demand  and  have  grants  of 
land  who  have  no  substance  to  fix  themselves 
further  than  cash  for  the  fees  of  taking  up  land;  a 
gun,  some  powder  and  shot,  a  few  tools  and  a 
plough;  they  maintain  themselves  the  first  year, 
like  Indians,  with  their  guns  and  nets;  and  after- 
wards by  the  same  means  with  the  assistance  of  the 
lands;  the  labour  of  their  farms  they  perform  them- 
selves, even  to  being  their  own  carpenters  and 
smiths;  by  this  means,  people  who  may  be  said  to 
have  no  fortunes  are  enabled  to  live,  and  in  a  few 
years  to  maintain  themselves  and  families  comfort- 
ably. .  .  .  They  fix  upon  the  spot  where  they 
intend  to  build  their  homes,  and  before  they  begin 
it,  get  ready  a  field  for  an  orchard,  planting  it 
immediately  with  apples  chiefly,  and  some  pears, 
cherries,  and  peaches.  This  they  secure  by  an 
inclosure.  Then  they  plant  a  piece  for  a  garden; 


70  The  Story  of  Corn 

and  as  soon  as  these  works  are  done,  they  begin  the 
house.  ...  As  soon  as  this  work  is  over,  which 
may  be  a  month  or  six  weeks,  the  settler  falls  to 
work  on  a  field  of  corn,  doing  all  the  labor  of  it, 
and,  from  not  being  able  to  buy  horses,  pays  a 
neighbor  for  the  ploughing  of  it.  ...  It  is  sur- 
prising with  how  small  sum  of  money  they  will 
venture  upon  the  cruise  of  settling;  and  it  proves  at 
the  first  mention  how  population  must  increase  in  a 
country  where  there  are  such  means  of  a  poor  man's 
supporting  his  family;  and,  in  which,  the  larger  the 
family,  the  easier  the  undertaking." 

The  second  story  is  told  by  Thomas  Ash,  a  clerk 
on  board  his  Majesty's  ship  Richmond,  who  was 
sent  to  Carolina  in  1682.  Speaking  of  the  colonists 
he  said :  ' '  Their  Gardens  'begin  to  be  supplied  with 
such  European  Plants  and  Herbs  as  are  necessary 
for  the  Kitchen,  viz. :  Potatoes,  Lettice,  Coleworts 
[cabbage],  Parsnip,  Turnip,  Carrot  and  Reddish: 
Their  Gardens  also  begin  to  be  beautiful  and  adorned 
with  such  Herbs  and  Flowers  which  to  the  Smell  or 
Eye  are  pleasing  and  agreeable,  viz.:  The  Rose, 
Tulip,  Carnation  and  Lilly,  etc.  Their  Provision 
which  grows  in  the  Field  is  chiefly  Indian  Corn, 
which  produces  a  vast  Increase,  yearly,  yielding  Two 
plentiful  Harvests,  of  which  they  make  wholesome 
Bread,  and  good  Bisket,  which  gives  a  strong,  sound, 
and  nourishing  Diet;  with  Milk  I  have  eaten  it 
dress 'd  various  ways:  Of  the  juice  of  the  Corn, 
when  green,  the  Spaniards  with  Chocolet,  aroma- 
tiz'd  with  Spices,  make  a  rare  Drink,  of  an  excellent 


A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food 


Delicacy.  I  have  seen  the  English  amongst  the 
Caribbes  roast  the  green  Ear  on  the  Coals,  and  eat 
it  with  a  great  deal  of 
Pleasure:  The  Indians  in 
Carolina  parch  the  ripe 
Corn,  then  pound  it  to  a 
Powder,  putting  it  in  a 
Leathern  Bag:  When 
they  use  it,  they  take  a 
little  quantity  of  the  Pow- 
der in  the  Palms  of  their 
Hands,  Mixing  it  with 
Water,  and  sup  it  off: 
with  this  they  will  travel 
several  days.  In  short, 
it's  a  Grain  of  General 
Use  to  Man  and  Beast, 
many  thousands  of  both 
kinds  in  the  West  Indies 
having  from  it  the  greater 
part  of  their  Subsistence. 
The  American  Physicians 
observe  that  it  breeds 
good  Blood,  removes  and 
opens  Oppellations.  At 
Carolina  they  have  lately 
invented  a  way  of  makeing  with  it  good  sound 
Beer;  but  it's  strong  anol  heady:  By  Maceration, 
when  duly  fermented,  a  strong  Spirit  like  Brandy 
may  be  drawn  off  from  it,  by  the  help  of  an 
Alembick." 


Indian  corn 


72  The  Story  of  Corn 

Importance  of  Corn  in  the  History  of  America. 
It  is  quite  probable  that  no  other  product  of  the  soil 
has  been  of  such  tremendous  value  to  any  people 
as  this  new  cereal  was  to  the  first  settlers  of  America. 
It  saved  them  during  the  first  starving  times  and 
made  them  exceedingly  prosperous.  It  was  so 
easily  produced  and  the  yield  so  abundant  that  our 
first  colonists  were  soon  in  better  condition  than 
their  friends  and  relatives  in  Europe.  It  was  the 
basis  of  the  wealth  of  the  country;  and  since  it 
flourished  in  every  section,  every  planter  had 
plenty  and  a  surplus.  Men  paid  their  debts  with 
it  and  exchanged  it  for  the  luxuries  of  Europe. 
Cattle  and  hogs  were  easily  fed  in  the  forests 
and  meadows  for  a  large  part  of  the  year,  but  the 
abundant  corn  supply  greatly  aided  the  planter  in 
fattening  them  for  the  market.  In  this  way  corn 
indirectly  contributed  again  to  the  wealth  of  the 
colonists,  since  the  hides,  beef,  and  pork  formed 
a  considerable  part  of  their  commerce  and  found 
a  ready  market  in  Europe. 

This  new  food  soon  became  known  in  Europe,  and 
from  that  time  famines  have  been  growing  less  and 
less  frequent,  and  corn — together  with  its  indirect 
products  such  as  beef,  hides,  and  pork — has  been 
forming  a  larger  and  larger  part  of  the  commerce 
of  the  world.  Therefore  the  commerce  of  the  coast, 
the  opening  up  of  this  vast  continent,  and  the  great 
wealth  of  the  whole  country  have  depended  in  large 
measure  upon  this  new  grain  that  the  Indians  gave 
to  the  first  settlers. 


A  New  Continent  and  a  New  Food  73 

Our  Gold.  "Drop  a  grain  of  California  gold  into 
the  ground,  and  there  it  will  lie  unchanged  until  the 
end  of  time,  the  clods  on  which  it  falls  not  more  dead 
and  lifeless.  Drop  a  grain  of  our  gold,  of  our  blessed 
gold,  into  the  ground  and  lo!  a  mystery.  In  a  few 
days  it  softens,  it  swells,  it  shoots  upwards;  it  is  a 
living  thing.  It  is  yellow  itself,  but  it  sends  up  a 
delicate  spire,  which  comes  peeping,  emerald  green, 
through  the  soil;  it  expands  to  a  vigorous  stalk; 
revels  in  the  air  and  sunshine;  arrays  itself  more 
glorious  than  Solomon  in  its  verdant  skeins  of 
vegetable  floss,  displays  its  dancing  tassels,  sur- 
charged with  fertilizing  dust,  and  at  last  ripens  into 
two  or  three  magnificent  batons,  each  of  which  is 
studded  with  a  hundred  grains  of  gold,  every  one 
possessing  the  same  wonderful  properties  as  the 
parent  grain."1 

1  Edward  Everett. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  LURE  OF  THE  LAND 

Land  Ownership."  There  is  nothing  so  essential 
to  life  and  the  welfare  of  a  people  as  fertile  lands. 
From  the  beginning  of  history  until  the  present  time 
the  great  wars  of  the  world  have  been  for  the  most 
part  contests  for  rich  lands;  hence  the  most  im- 
portant event  in  history  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  was  the  discovery  of  America. 

If  we  examine  into  the  causes  of  the  decline  of 
the  great  nations  of  the  past  we  find  in  almost  every 
instance  that  the  majority  of  the  people  ceased  to 
have  a  share,  or  an  opportunity  to  share,  in  the 
land  of  the  country.  All  the  land  became  divided 
into  large  estates  owned  by  a  wealthy  and  privileged 
class,  and  those  who  tilled  the  soil  became  slaves, 
or  peasants  whose  lot  was  as  hard  as  that  of  slaves. 
When  such  a  condition  prevails  the  land  declines  in 
productivity,  the  food  supply  is  affected,  and  the 
nation's  strength  is  greatly  impaired. 

When  the  first  settlements  were  made  in  America 
the  bulk  of  the  land  of  England  and  of  other  Euro- 
pean nations  had  passed  from  the  hands  of  the 
people  into  great  estates,  owned  and  controlled  by 
a  comparative  few.  In  England  all  the  land  was 
owned  not  only  by  a  very  small  proportion  of  the 
people  but  in  such  a  way  that  it  was  usually  handed 

74 


The  Lure  of  the  Land 


75 


down  from  father  to  son  and  as  a  rule  did  not  pass 
out  of  the  family.     It  was  practically  impossible 


Sheep  grazing  in  England.    Often  when  wool  was  dear  the  fields  were 

turned  into  sheep  pastures.     Then  the  tenants,  deprived  of 

employment,  turned  eagerly  to  the  free  land  of  America 

for  the  great  laboring  class  of  people,  who  really 
tilled  the  soil,  ever  to  own  the  land  they  worked. 
Tenants  subject  to  removal  by  their  landlords 
cannot  be  said  to  be  entirely  free,  for  the  landlord 
could  turn  his  fields  into  sheep  pastures  or  make 
any  changes  he  desired,  and  throw  the  tenant  out  of 
employment.  Since  their  occupations  were  not 
always  certain,  and  since  it  was  frequently  the  case 
that  the  food  supply  of  this  overcrowded  country 
was  too  small  for  the  needs  of  the  people,  this  class 
of  tenant  farmers  was  dependent  in  many  instances 
upon  the  charity  of  the  landlords  for  the  actual 


76  The  Story  of  Corn 

necessities  of  life.  Even  the  English  government, 
at  last  roused  to  pity  by  such  destitute  conditions, 
enacted  what  was  known  as  the  "poor  laws," 
making  it  compulsory  upon  the  parishes  to  distribute 
free  food  to  families  in  times  of  great  distress. 
Under  such  conditions  the  laboring  man  could  not 
attain  to  real  independence  and  self-respect. 

The  Free  Lands  of  America.  When  the  free  lands 
of  America  were  finally  opened  to  the  world,  and 
after  the  hardships  of  the  first  settlers  had  given 
place  to  great  prosperity  due  in  large  measure  to 
the  corn  of  the  Indians,  it  was  only  natural  that  this 
tenant  class  of  farmers  should  look  to  the  New 
World.  They  were  eager  for  land  because  it  would 
produce  corn,  and  each  man  who  had  been  a  tenant 
in  Europe  and  subject  to  the  charity  as  well  as  the 
will  of  the  landlord  might  now  himself  become  a 
landlord  in  America.  He  might  be  independent. 
His  land  would  produce  both  wheat  and  corn,  while 
in  England  the  climatic  conditions  were  such  that 
only  wheat  could  be  produced.  Therefore  he  had 
a  much  greater  opportunity  for  making  a  living  and 
creating  wealth,  and  he  now  learned  for  the  first 
time  what  freedom  really  was.  He  had  slaved  in 
Europe,  stinted  his  family,  and  taken  his  political 
and  religious  faith  from  his  master,  the  landlord. 
But  in  this  great  open  New  World  where  food  w'as 
plentiful,  and  clothing  and  shelter  easily  obtained, 
he  took  orders  from  no  one  and  felt  himself  the 
equal  of  any  other  man  on  the  whole  round  world. 

Free    public    lands    that    would    produce   great 


The  Lure  of  the  Land  77 

quantities  of  foodstuff  were  the  greatest  single  influ- 
ence in  America's  development.  The  most  servile  of 
men  in  the  Old  World  when  once  in  the  New  World 
could  feel  the  force  of  this  universal  sense  of  freedom, 
because  he  could  own  his  home  and  have  food  in 
abundance.  It  was  natural,  therefore,  that  these 
people  should  rejoice  in  their  freedom  and  with 
feeling  discuss  their  rights  whenever  the  English 
government  began  to  interfere  with  them.  The 
early  history  of  each  colony  tells  how  those  pioneers 
would  meet  under  the  shade  of  the  trees  and  there 
hold  their  courts  or  assemblies  and  discuss  their 
rights  as  free  Englishmen.  It  was  frequently  the 
case  that  groups  of  settlers  dressed  in  buckskins 
and  hunting  shirts,  armed  with  hunting  knives  and 
flintlock  rifles,  and  feeling  no  restraint  whatever, 
walked  .into  the  presence  of  the  doughty  old 
governor  of  a  colony  and  threatened  him  with 
violence,  or  even  defied  the  whole  English  govern- 
ment. Think  of  a  mere  handful  of  men  defying 
the  great  English  nation!  This  was  characteristic 
of  men  who  for  the  first  time  in  their  lives  were 
enjoying  real  freedom  to  the  fullest  extent. 

How  America  was  Settled.  These  free  fertile 
lands  called  the  landless  peasants  of  Europe  to  our 
country  in  great  numbers.  The  desire  to  reach 
America  was  so  great  that  many  poor  laborers 
bound  themselves  to  the  owners  of  vessels  and 
were  sold  into  servitude  for  a  term  of  years  for 
an  amount  sufficient  to  pay  their  passage.  After 
working  out  their  time,  these  servants  secured  land 


7#  The  Story  of  Corn 

on  the  frontier,  built  homes,  cleared  small  patches, 
planted  corn,  and  became  prosperous  men.     Vast 


Copyright  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

For  more  than  three  hundred  years  immigrants  have  been  coming  to 

America  from  every  nation  of  the  globe,  seeking  freedom, 

new  homes,  and  new  opportunities 

hordes  of  laboring  men,  leaving  the  old  home  ties, 
set  out  for  the  New  World,  where  a  man  was  free 
to  make  a  living  as  he  pleased,  free  to  worship  as 
he  pleased,  and  free  to  entertain  any  political  idea  he 
pleased.  There'  was  no  other  such  country  in  all 
the  world.  England  and  Germany,  and  later  Russia 
and  Italy,  sent  their  landless  peasants  here,  while 
all  the  nations  of  Europe  drove  their  persecuted 
men  and  women  hither  in  search  of  new  homes  and 


The  Lure  of  the  Land  7P 

new  opportunities.  It  is  well  to  observe  also  that- 
comparatively  few  settlers  came  from  Switzerland 
and  Holland.  These  countries  have  added  little  to 
our  population,  because  they  are.  countries  in  which 
the  land  is  held  by  small  proprietors,  who  own 
their  homes  and  love  their  country.  But  the 
nations  that  chiefly  settled  America  are  nations  of 
large  estates,  whose  landless  peasants  endured  untold 
hardships  in  a  new  country  to  secure  land  on  which 
to  build  homes.  Having  once  established  their 
homes  on  land  of  their  own,  their  allegiance  was 
easily  transferred  to  the  New  World.  Most  men 
care  little  for  the  form  of  government  so  long  as 
they  are  free  to  make  a  living  for  their  families 
and  are  able  to  protect  their  homes. 

Religious  and  Political  Persecution.  However, 
it  was  not  alone  the  free  lands  that  contributed  to 
the  growth  of  the  American  colonies,  although  that 
was  the  greatest  single  factor  in  their  development. 
You  have  already  learned  of  the  unsettled  political 
conditions  in  Europe.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
the  governments  of  Europe  frequently  took  sides  in 
the  religious  discussions  and  persecuted  those  who 
did  not  belong  to  the  same  denomination  as  did  the 
ruler  of  the  nation.  Men  and  women  were  burned 
at  the  stake  for  daring  to  believe  differently.  More- 
over, though  many  did  not  think  the  king  was  always 
right,  if  people  dared  to  criticize  the  rulers  or  to  advo- 
cate political  principles  different  from  those  held  by 
their  sovereigns,  they,  too,  were  often  persecuted  and 
sometimes  thrown  into  jail  or  burned  at  the  stake. 


8o  The  Story  of  Corn 

The  religious  persecutions  in  England  from  1620 
to  1640  drove  more  than  twenty  thousand  men  and 
women  to  New  England,  and  during  the  succeeding 
twenty  years  as  many  more  were  driven  to  Virginia, 
Maryland,  and  the  Carolinas.  So  great  was  the 
exodus  that  by  1700  there  were  at  least  two  hun- 
dred sixty  thousand  Europeans  in  America  seeking 
new  lands,  greater  prosperity,  and  freedom  from 
Old  World  tyranny.  By  1750  there  were  more  than 
a  million  inhabitants  in  the  New  World,  among  them 
many  from  England,  Germany,  Sweden,  France,  and 
Italy.  Settling  first  in  the  river  valleys  along  the 
coast,  they  built  their  homes,  cleared  the  forests, 
and  planted  corn,  which  was  to  be  their  chief  support 
and  the  basis  of  their  wealth. 

The  Thirteen  Colonies  prospered  on  Corn.  We 
have  already  told  how  and  where  the  first  English 
colonies  were  founded:  the  one  at  Jamestown, 
Virginia,  the  other  at  Plymouth,  Massachusetts. 
Suppose  you  take  your  history  and  learn  how  each 
of  the  thirteen  early  colonies  was  formed.  The  one 
at  Massachusetts  Bay  grew  to  be  Massachusetts, 
and  from  it  were  formed  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island, 
and  New  Hampshire.  Along  the  coast  we  find  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia.  Each  one  had  its  beginning  in  the  lands 
bordering  the  sea,  along  the  rivers,  or  near  the  bays 
and  sounds.  Corn  was  produced  in  each  of  these 
colonies,  more  or  less  abundantly,  and  it  was  easy 
for  one  to  make  a  living. 


The  Lure  of  the  Land  81 

If  we  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  coast,  beginning 
at  Trenton,  New  Jersey,  crossing  the  Potomac  at 
Washington,  the  Roanoke  at  Weldon,  the  Neuse  at 
Smithfield,  and  passing  through  Camden  and  Colum- 
bia, South  Carolina,  and  Augusta,  Georgia,  we  shall 
cross  the  rivers  at  their  falls  and  outline  the  bound- 
ary of  the  coastal  plain.  In  this  section,  between 
the  Fall  Line  and  the  coast,  the  first  settlements  were 
made.  Here  were  to  be  found  the  rich  river  valleys 
that  would  produce  food  in  abundance.  After 
having  enough  for  their  own  needs  the  people  could 
put  the  surplus  corn  into  boats  and  send  it  to  the 
West  Indies  or  to  South  America,  and  trade  it  for 
some  of  the  products  of  those  countries.  But  between 
the  Fall  Line  and  the  mountains  was  a  vast  area 
far  removed  from  the  commerce  of  the  East.  This 
was  the  great  back  country.  It  was  easy  for  those 
living  on  the  sounds,  bays,  and  navigable  portions 
of  the  rivers  along  the  coast  to  exchange  their  sur- 
plus products,  accumulate  wealth,  and  enjoy  many 
of  the  luxuries  of  Europe.  In  fact,  every  great 
and  prosperous  people  up  to  this  time  had  been 
thus  favorably  located.  In  Europe  the  back  country 
suffered  most,  since  the  roads  were  so  poor  that 
the  vehicles  of  the  times  could  not  transport  heavy 
merchandise  for  any  great  distance,  and  it  was  not 
every  back  settlement  in  Europe  that  could  produce 
enough  food  for  its  own  use.  In  America,  however, 
it  was  different.  It  is  true  that  we  had  no  roads, 
and  commerce  between  the  settlers  of  the  hilly 
country  and  the  towns  along  the  rivers  was  next  to 


The  Lure  of  the  Land  83 

impossible.  But  in  America  there  was  one  grain 
that  would  grow  abundantly  anywhere.  Therefore, 
if  men  were  fleeing  from  Europe  to  escape  religious 
or  political  persecution  or  were  tired  of  economic 
slavery  and  were  seeking  free  lands,  whether  they 
settled  almost  up  to  the  arctic  circle  or  within  the 
torrid  zone,  there  was  one  food  that  gave  them 
support  and  made  them  independent — the  corn  of 
the  Indians. 

As  the  colonists  of  America  pushed  up  streams 
into  this  back  country  they  planted  this  new  grain 
and  it  brought  forth  as  abundantly  in  the  piedmont 
sections  as  in  the  river  valleys  of  the  East.  Even 
there  it  was  easy  to  live,  and  the  free  lands,  where 
plenty  abounded  with  little  labor,  drew  thousands 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  past  the  .settlements 
of  the  East.  Beyond  the  falls  of  the  rivers  they 
passed,  turning  first  one  way  and  then  another, 
wherever  the  land  was  unoccupied.  They  cut  down 
trees,  built  homes,  and  made  clearings.  A  small 
patch  of  ground  planted  in  corn  would  support  the 
wife  and  children,  and  the  head  of  the  family  was 
free  to  hunt  the  wild  animals  in  the  forests. 

Life  in  the  wild  country  was  free,  open,  and  with- 
out restraint.  There  were  no  roads  save  the  trails 
of  the  Indian  or  buffalo.  Below  the  fall  line  the 
settlers  built  their  homes  to  face  the  rivers  or  the 
sounds  and  bays.  These  were  their  roads,  and 
sometimes  they  were  spoken  of  as  "running  roads." 
But,  whenever  possible,  settlers  in  the  back  country 
built  their  homes  on  or  near  the  old  Indian  trails, 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

An  Indian  trail.     Many  pioneers  in  the  hill  country  settled  on  or 

near  old  Indian  trails.     Later  these  trails  widened  into  roads, 

some  of  which  have  determined  railroad  routes 

along  which  many  passed  in  their  search  for  new 
lands.  At  first  these  trails  were  but  rough  paths 
marked  out  through  the  forest,  but  along  them  the 
pioneers  built  many  houses,  and  soon  little  villages 
sprang  up.  When  the  wagon  came  into  use  as  the 
best  means  of  carrying  the  produce  of  the  interior 
to  market  and  bringing  in  return  the  necessities  of 
life,  the  trails  were  widened  into  rough  roads.  But 
those  early  settlers  in  the  back  country  had  little 
need  for  roads.  Corn  gave  them  their  bread  and 


The  Lure  of  the  Land  85 

food  for  their  horses;  the  rifle  gave  them  meat  and 
much  of  their  clothing;  and  they  made  their  own 
furniture  and  some  of  their  clothing  material. 
Only  once  or  twice  a  year  did  they  go  down  to  the 
towns  along  the  rivers  to  buy  salt  and  the  few  other 
things  they  needed. 

How  the  Piedmont  Country  depended  on  Corn. 
Indian  corn  was  the  most  valuable  crop  of  the  back 
country,  too,  since  it  furnished  an  easily  obtain- 
able foocl  for  the  settlers.  Many  hogs,  after  being 
fattened  on  it,  were  driven  in  great  numbers  to 
markets  many  miles  from  the  interior.  It  was  not 
an  unusual  sight  to  see  two  or  three  men,  or  a  man 
and  his  boys,  driving,  always  toward  the  East, 


A  flock  of  sheep  in  the  piedmont  country.     Here  the  rich  pasture 

lands  have  been  utilized  for  stock  raising  since  the 

days  of  the  earliest  settlers 


86  The  Story  of  Corn 

great  droves  of  hogs,  fattened  on  the  nuts,  acorns, 
and  Indian  corn  of  the  hills.  Their  progress  was  slow 
and  the  journey  to  market  often  required  many 
days  and  sometimes  many  weeks.  Cattle,  too, 
were  fattened  and  driven  to  market  in  a  similar 
way,  and  even  to-day,  in  the  districts  farthest 
removed  from  the  railroads,  it  is  a  common  thing 
to  see  a  driver  on  horseback,  with  two  or  three 
assistants,  driving  great  herds  of  cattle  to  market. 
It  was  frequently  the  case  that  a  flock  of  turkeys  or 
geese,  two  or  three  hundred  of  them,  could  also  be 
seen  passing  along  the  trail  on  the  way  to  market. 

In  those  early  days,  when  there  were  no  restric- 
tions placed  on  the  making  of  whisky,  many  farmers 
used  their  corn  for  that  purpose.  Hogs  could  be 
fattened  on  the  mash;  and  it  was  not  unusual  for 
a  farmer  to  carry  the  whisky  in  his  wagon  and  drive 
his  hogs  ahead  of  him  as  he  journeyed  to  the  town. 
This  was  one  of  the  ways  in  which  the  corn  of  the 
interior  reached  a  market  in  the  days  when  the 
Indian  trail  was  first  widened  into  a  road. 

Tobacco,  too,  which  had  a  ready  money  value 
in  the  markets  of  Europe,  was  packed  in  large  hogs- 
heads and  rolled  sometimes  many  miles  to  market. 
In  order  to  gain  time  the  farmer  would  fasten  two 
shafts  to  the  hogshead  and,  hitching  his  horse  to  it, 
would  drive  the  load  to  market,  the  hogshead  rolling 
along  on  its  journey.  This  was  a  favorite  mode 
of  conveyance  until  long  after  the  railroad  came. 

The  Growth  of  the  Colonies  depended  on  Corn. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  find  another  instance  in  the 


The  Lure  of  the  Land  87 

history  of  the  world  comparable  to  the  growth  of 
the  English  colonies  in  America.  Within  a  century 
and  a  half  a  new  civilization  was  established,  possess- 
ing a  sense  of  freedom  and  prosperity  such  as  the 
world  had  never  before  witnessed.  The  desire  for 
homes  in  the  new  country  was  so  great  that  at  times 
there  were  barely  enough  vessels  to  convey  the 
great  numbers  of  people  who  sought  the  freedom  of 
the  New  World,  where  a  new  food  made  living  easy 
and  free  lands  nourished  a  free  spirit  in  the  race. 
But  settlements  soon  reached  the  mountains,  and 
still  people  demanded  more  free  land.  Not  gold, 
mind  you,  but  land  that  would  produce  corn ! 

As  the  land-owners  in  America  began  to  prosper 
they  desired  laborers  to  work  in  the  fields.  They 
knew  that  in  England  there  were  carpenters,  black- 
smiths, and  field  laborers  who  were  falling  into 
poverty  and  even  crime  for  lack  of  means  to  earn 
an  honest  living.  Therefore  they  began  to  import 
white  servants.  Agents  on  the  streets  of  London 
advertised  the  great  advantages  to  be  secured  in 
this  new  world.  Thousands  of  poverty-stricken 
people  made  contracts  with  these  agents  to  serve 
on  the  plantations  for  a  term  of  years  if  the  planters 
would  only  pay  their  passage  to  America.  The  term 
of  service  varied  with  the  age  of  the  servant :  if  over 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  he  was  to  serve  fo,ur  years; 
if  under  twelve,  seven  years.  For  persons  between 
twelve  and  twenty  the  usual  term  of  service  was  five 
years. 

In  addition  to  these  white  servants  a  few  negroes 


88  The  Story  of  Corn 

were  brought  over  to  work  in  the  fields,  and  this  was 
the  beginning  of  negro  slaves  in  English  America. 

The  Call  of  the  Frontiers.  We  have  seen  how  the 
nations  of  Europe  settled  the  land  along  the  coast. 
In  time  these  settlements  became  flourishing  colo- 
nies with  stable  governments.  At  the  time  of  the 
Revolutionary  War  there  were  thirteen  of  these 
colonies,  each  governed  in  a  sense  by  authorities  in 
England.  But  there  was  always  the  back  country, 
the  frontiers,  that  was  free  and  open  to  all.  And 
it  was  the  frontiers  that  kept  America  free,  since 
any  man  discontented  with  the  government  of  the 
colonies  along  the  coast  could  move  into  this  country, 
there  to  enjoy  life  with  absolutely  no  restrictions. 
It  was  the  frontier  life  that  supplied  a  perpetual 
stream  of  freedom  that  flowed  back  continually 
into  the  older  colonies  which  were  growing  more 
conservative  and  more  like  old  England  every  day. 

The  English  landlord,  who  understood  thoroughly 
the  helpless  condition  of  the  peasant  tenant  class 
of  England,  could  not  understand  why  a  peasant 
servant  class  did  not  develop  in  America.  The 
reason  is  to  be  found  in  the  free  lands.  A  white 
man  of  energy  would  not  long  remain  a  tenant,  for 
there  was  an  abundance  of  land  that  he  might  own 
for  the  asking  where  no  landlord  Tiad  jurisdiction. 
Therefore,  the  frontiers  were  always  being  settled 
by  a  class  of  people  who  were  building  homes 
probably  for  the  first  time,  and  who  above  all  others 
enjoyed  the  benefits  of  personal  liberty.  '  In  England 
there  was  no  land  to  be  had  at  any  price;  the 


m 

The  Lure  of  the  Land  89 

wealthy  landlords  held  it  all.  There  was  no  place 
for  the  peasant  tenant  class  to  go,  nothing  for  them 
to  do,  but  submit  to  the  will  of  the  landlord,  or 
emigrate  to  America.  In  America  the  landlord  of 
the  large  estate  in  the  South  could  not  reduce  his 
tenants  to  servitude  because  they  could  leave  him 
and  acquire  free  lands  at  any  time.  This  is  why 
the  free  lands  on  the  frontiers  have  contributed  so 
much  to  the  freedom  of  America. 

It  is  quite  probable,  however,  that  if  the  colonists 
could  not  have  crossed  the  mountains  they  would, 
within  a  few  decades,  have  become  as  conservative 
and  as  aristocratic  as  England,  since  there  would 
have  been  little  to  stimulate  and  feed  the  instinct 
for  freedom  with  which  every  individual  is  born. 
Moreover,  this  free  spirit,  ever  springing  up  on  the 
frontiers  which  no  government  could  reach  and  no 
officer  molest,  has  been  furnishing  red  blood  for  our 
American  life  for  three  hundred  years,  and  filling 
our  nation  with  the  democratic  ideas  of  personal 
liberty  and  equality  of  opportunity. 

An  endless  stream  of  settlers  kept  continually 
moving  westward  into  the  wild,  free  lands  of  the 
frontiers,  and  still  the  great  primeval  forests 
stretched  farther  in  that  direction — how  far,  none 
knew.  But  the  dense  and  gloomy  woodland  in 
which  roamed  all  manner  of  wild  beasts  and  savage 
Indians  was  ever  attractive  to  the  hardy  pioneer. 
It  was  always  calling  him  on,  always  appealing  to 
his  adventurous  spirit,  and  always  arousing  his 
desire  for  conquest  and  his  sense  of  freedom.  It 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

Through  the  mountainous  regions  of  Tennessee  an  endless  stream 
of  settlers  moved  toward  the  wild,  free  lands  of  the  frontier 

was  the  same  spirit  that  drove  the  wandering  tribes 
across  Europe  more  than  a  thousand  years  before. 
France,  England,  Spain,  and  Italy  afforded  similar 
attractions  when  the  Northmen,  Huns,  Vandals, 
Goths,  and  others  came  out  of  the  north  and  west 
and  took  possession  of  those  countries.  So  in 
America  the  western  wilds  were  always  beckoning 
to  the  white  man,  and  he  was  constantly  pushing 
thitherward  into  the  unknown. 

The  Land  beyond  the  Mountains.  By  studying 
the  map  on  page  61  you  will  see  that  the  English 
colonies  were  hemmed  in  on  the  north  by  the  French, 
on  the  south  by  the  Spaniards.  On  the  west  lay  the 
Appalachian  Mountains.  Immigrants  were  coming 
in  such  numbers  that  expansion  was  absolutely 


Tlie  Lure  of  the  Land  gi . 

necessary,  but  the  settlements  could  not  expand  far 
toward  the  north,  for  there  were  the  French;  neither 
could  they  expand  far  toward  the  south,  for  there 
were  the  Spaniards.  They  had  to  move  westward 
across  the  mountains.  But  there  were  many  difficul- 
ties to  overcome  since  the  mountains,  in  those  days 
of  poor  roads,  were  almost  impassable  to  large 
bodies  of  settlers.  Then,  too,  beyond  them  roamed 
many  tribes  of  savage  Indians.  Therefore,  many 
years  passed  before  the  Englishman  crossed  the 
Appalachians  and  looked  into  that  great  territory 
drained  by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries. 

It  was  in  the  present  state  of  Virginia  that  settlers 
first  reached  the  mountains.  Virginia  was  becom- 
ing much  like  England,  the  land  as  a  rule  being  di- 
vided into  very  large  plantations  which  were  handed 
down  from  father  to  son  as  was  the  case  in  England. 
A  similar  land  tenure  prevailed  in  most  of  the 
Southern  States.  It  was  different,  however,  in 
New  England.  Therefore,  it  was  in  the  South,  and 
especially  in  Virginia,  that  the  settlers  pushed 
farthest  west.  First  went  the  trapper  and  hunter, 
seeking  game  and  furs,  and  his  stories  of  the  wild 
country  that  always  stretched  farther  and  farther 
westward  attracted  the  cattle  and  hog  rangers,  who 
moved  in  and  built  their  cabins,  cleared  the  land, 
and  began  to  raise  corn.  There  was  something 
especially  fascinating  about  this  wild  frontier  life, 
where  a  man  could  live  easily  without  much  labor* 
and  do  just  as  he  pleased.  No  taxes,  no  officers 
of  the  law,  nothing  to  molest  him  save  the  wild 


02  The  Story  of  Corn 

animals  that  attracted  him  thither  and  the  Indians 
who  might  steal  upon  him. 

In  their  movements  westward  the  feettlers  usually 
followed  old  Indian  trails;  these  were  [the  first  roads. 
There  was  a  natural  pass  leading  from  the  head- 


waters of  the  Potomac  River  across 
into  the  Ohio  Valley.     The  Indians 


the  mountains 
had  made  this 


pass  their  great  highway  from  the  East  to  the  West. 
Along  this  trail  the  first  settlers  passep  in  attempting 


to   reach   the   new   lands   beyond 


;he   mountains. 


But  when  that  little  band  of  Virginians  had  crossed 
the  mountains  and  built  their  little  ca  bin  homes  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Ohio,  behold!  there  v  ere  the  French 
claiming  the  whole  valley.  The  French  had  come 
into  this  region  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  the  northern  tributaries  of  the 
Ohio,  and  they  at  once  drove  this  little  band  of 
Virginians  back  across  the  mountains. 

At  last  the  English  colonists  had  heard  the  word, 
Halt!  In  crossing  the  mountains  they  had  come 
face  to  face  with  the  French.  What  would  be  the 
result  ?  Would  the  mountains  be  the  western  bound- 
ary line  of  the  English?  How  much  land  lay  west 
of  them?  Would  it  produce  corn?  In  their 
attempts  to  answer  these  questions  the  English 
colonies  along  the  coast  not  only  broke  through 
the  mountain  passes  but  entered  into  a  great  war 
with  the  French  for  possession  of  the  greatest  corn 
country  in  the  world. 


CHAPTER  VII 
OPENING  THE  GREAT  CORN  COUNTRY 

?Why  the  English  Settlers  were  slow  to  cross  the 
Mountains.  There  were  two  waterways  open- 
ing into  this  great  valley  beyond  the  mountains— 
one  by  way  of  the  Mississippi  River  from  the  south, 
and  the  other  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 
the  Great  Lakes  from  the  north.  As  we  have  read 
in  a  previous  chapter,  the  Spaniards  first  explored 
the  land  around  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  along  the 
lower  Mississippi;  but  they  found  no  gold,  and  they 
laid  no  claim  to  the  country.  The  French  entered 
this  region  through  the  second  doorway,  that  is, 
from  the  north,  by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  Passing  from  the  lakes  to  the 
Mississippi,  they  went  down  the  river  in  their 
canoes  and  took  possession  of  the  entire  Mississippi 
Valley.  The  English  had  settled  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  but  they  claimed  all  the  land  to  the  west 
of  their  colonies  as  far  as  the  Pacific  Ocean.  How- 
ever, the  Appalachian  Mountains,  running  parallel 
to  the  coast,  at  the  most  only  a  few  hundred  miles 
inland,  formed  a  barrier  which  the  English  found 
difficult  to  pass.  At  first,  only  a  very  few  settlers 
from  Virginia  endured  the  dangers  and  hardships 
and  crossed  over  into  that  wild  and  exceedingly 
dangerous  country  beyond  the  mountains. 

93 


94  The  Story  of  Corn 

Ancient  Highways.  Long  before  the  white  man 
settled  the  river  valleys  of  the  East,  or  even  before 
this  new  continent  was  discovered,  the  buffalo  and 
the  Indian  had  discovered  passes  through  the  moun- 
tains. Droves  of  buffaloes  first  marked  out  the 
paths  in  passing  from  the  Mississippi  Valley  to  the 
Coastal  Plain,  and  the  Indians  followed  them  in 
hunting  or  war  expeditions.  When  the  English 
made  their  homes  along  the  coast  these  trails  were 
clearly  marked,  and  as  they  were  easily  followed 
they  became  our  first  roads 

The  first  trail  of  importance  led  across  the  state 
of  New  York  by  way  of  the  Hudson  and  the  Mohawk 
rivers.  This  was  perhaps  the  most  important 
Indian  trail  on  the  American  continent  because  it 
made  a  short  and  easy  connection  between  the 
Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Mohawk 
Valley,  that  connects  the  Great  Lakes  region  with 
the  Hudson  River,  was  owned  and  controlled  by 
the  Iroquois  Indians,  however,  and  all  travelers 
crossing  from  the  Hudson  River  to  the  Great  Lakes 
along  this  route  had  to  pass  through  the  heart 
of  the  territory  of  the  most  powerful  Indians  on 
the  continent.  Hence  this  trail  was  not  followed 
to  any  great  extent  by  the  English  until  after  the 
Revolutionary  War. 

Another  trail  ran  from  the  Delaware  River,  at 
the  present  location  of  Philadelphia,  through  western 
Pennsylvania,  to  what  is  now  Pittsburgh.  A  very 
important  trail  followed  the  Potomac  River  to  what 
is  now  Cumberland,  Maryland,  and  thence  across  the 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country 


95 


highways  to  the   West.     These  trails,  first  used  by  the 
Indians,  later  were  traveled  by  pioneer  settlers 

mountains  to  the  Ohio  River  to  what  is  now  Wheel- 
ing, West  Virginia.  It  was  along  this  trail  that  the 
first  Virginia  colonists  traveled.  The  fourth  great 
trail  led  from  northeast  North  Carolina,  along  the 
ridge  near  the  boundary  of  the  state,  across  southwest 
Virginia,  through  Cumberland  Gap  into  Tennessee 
or  northward  into  the  blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky. 
Hunters  and  trappers,  if  they  were  cautious,  could 
follow  these  trails  very  well,  but  it  was  extremely 
difficult  to  move  families  along  them,  since  provisions 
enough  to  support  them  had  to  be  carried  and  at  the 
same  time  they  had  to  be  protected  from  the  Indians. 
We  can  see,  therefore,  some  of  the  difficulties  the 
English  had  in  taking  the  Ohio  Valley,  especially  as 
the  French  were  already  in  actual  possession  of  i't. 
The  Disputed  Territory.  Examine  the  map  above 
and  trace  the  Potomac  River  to  its  source,  and 


g6  The  Story  of  Corn 

thence  cross  to  Wheeling,  West  Virginia.  See  how 
near  together  are  the  sources  of  the  Potomac  and 
the  Ohio  rivers.  Turn  to  the  map  on  page  82  and 
observe  what  a  vast  territory  is  drained  by  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  its  tributaries — one  of  the  greatest  river 
valleys  in  the  world.  If  the  French  could  have  suc- 
ceeded in  keeping  the  English  out  of  the  Ohio  Valley, 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  Vould  have  formed  the 
western  boundary  of  the  English  colonies.  You  can 
easily  see,  then,  how  very  important  to  Virginia  was 
the  Ohio  Valley,  embracing  as  it  did  the  present 
states  of  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois. 

The  Virginians  did  not  understand  the  great 
fertility  of  this  land  west  of  the  mountains.  They 
only  knew  that  it  was  a  great  river  valley,  that 
settlers  desired  more  free  land,  and  that  the  Indians 
living  in  this  valley  were  already  raising  much  corn 
with  very  little  labor.  This  was  perhaps  the  most 
prosperous  section  inhabited  by  the  Indians;  the 
fertile  river  valley  and  rich  prairie  lands  produced 
so  much  corn  that  famine  was  seldom  known  even 
under  the  most  primitive  method  of  cultivating  the 
soil.  Here  the  Indians  were  very  powerful,  and  here 
they  fought  longest  against  the  English  settlers 
who  were  now  claiming  the  right  to  settle  this  fertile 
prairie  country. 

The  French  were  already  in  possession  of  the  coun- 
try, and  in  those  days  rights  and  claims  amounted 
to  little  unless  the  nation  interested  was  on  the 
ground  and  in  actual  possession.  France  had 
established  herself  very  securely  by  building  forts 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country  gf 

in  this  great  valley  before  the  Virginians  knew  of 
it.  Then  Virginia  acted  promptly,  and  sent  young 
George  Washington  across  the  mountains  to  warn 
the  French  against  settling  in  the  Ohio  Valley.  If 
you  wish  to  get  a  good  description  of  the  difficulties 
of  travel  across  the  mountains,  and  what  settlers  had 
to  endure  in  attempting  to  reach  the  Ohio  River, 
read  the  story  of  Washington's  journey  to  the  Ohio 
and  his  return.  It  was  in  the  year  1753  that  he  made 
that  famous  journey.  At  that  time,  nearly  one 
hundred  fifty  years  after  the  first  settlement  was 
made  at  Jamestown,  English  settlers  had  made  very 
few  attempts  to  find  homes  beyond  the  mountains. 

The  English  take  possession  of  the  Land  beyond 
the  Mountains.  It  was  a  far  cry  back  to  the  starving 
times  when  John  Smith  made  every  man  take  his 
hoe  and  go  to  work,  and  when  the  Indians  first 
taught  the  settlers  the  value  of  Indian  corn.  Over  a 
million  inhabitants  were  now  living  in  the  thirteen 
colonies  along  the  coast,  and  the  settlements  had  at 
last  reached  the  mountains.  Hunters  and  trappers 
had  already  visited  the  wild  region  and  brought  back 
wonderful  stories  of  the  country  and  of  the  amount 
of  game  to  be  found  there.  More  farms  were  needed, 
and  English  settlers  were  demanding  the  free  lands 
beyond  the  mountains. 

The  French  made  it  plain  to  George  Washington 
and  to  Virginia  that  they  considered  this  great 
valley  their  own,  and  that  they  were  ready  to  fight 
for  it.  Over  this  disputed  claim  Virginia  went  to 
war  with  the  French.  Soon  England  took  part  in 


g8  The  Story  of  Corn 

the  struggle.  The  result  was  a  great  European  war 
in  which  the  mother  countries  engaged  in  stubborn 
combat.  The  French,  in  taking  possession  of  the 
Ohio  Valley,  had  made  friends  with  the  Indians. 
They  were  interested  chiefly  in  fur  trading,  and  in 
this  the  Indians  could  be  of  great  assistance  to  them. 
When  the  French  and  English  colonists  went  to 
war  the  Indians  of  the  region  were  the  natural  allies 
of  the  French.  Hence  the  war  in  America  was 
called  the  French  and  Indian  War.  Our  United 
States  histories  treat  it  at  length  and  the  details 
are  known  to  every  school  boy.  In  this  struggle 
France  was  defeated  and  England  took  possession 
not  only  of  the  Ohio  Valley,  but  of  all  the  territory 
east  of  the  Mississippi  except  the  strip  of  land  on 
which  New  Orleans  is  located.  This  strip  and  every- 
thing west  of  the  Mississippi  France  ceded  to  Spain. 

After  the  English  were  victorious  the  Indians 
who  inhabited  the  valley  were  most  hostile  to  all 
English  settlers.  For  this  reason  the  settlers  were 
unable  to  follow  the  northern  trails  into  the  Ohio 
Valley.  The  only  natural  highway  into  this  new 
country  left  for  them,  then,  was  the  southern  trail, 
by  way  of  Cumberland  Gap. 

Daniel  Boone  leads  the  Way.  The  United  States 
owes  much  to  Daniel  Boone,  who  led  the  way  in- 
to this  great  country  beyond  the  mountains;  for 
he  opened  up  the  greatest  corn  country  in  all  the 
world.  During  his  service  in  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  he  had  heard  of  the  wonderful  beauty  and  fer- 
tility of  the  western  country,  especially  the  portion 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country 


99 


of  it  south  of  the  Ohio  River.     At  the  close  of  the 
war,  having  returned  to  his  North  Carolina  home, 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

Ferry  at  High  Bridge  over  the  Kentucky  River.     Into  this 

beautiful  and  fertile  country  Daniel  Boone  blazed 

a  way  for  hundreds  of  emigrants 

he  took  a  few  friends  and  started  in  search  of  that 
promised  land  "blessed  with  the  richest  of  soils  and 
the  balmiest  of  climates,  with  noble  forests  and 
luxuriant  expanses,  where  thousands  of  buffaloes 
and  other  big  game  browsed."1  The  Indians  called 
this  beautiful  land  "Kentucky,"  and  preserved  it  as 
a  hunting  ground  nominally  open  to  all  tribes. 

In  1760  Boone,  at  the  head  of  a  hunting  party, 
followed  an  old  Indian  trail  across  western  North 

*•  H.  Addington  Bruce  in  Daniel  Boone  and  the  Wilderness  Road. 


700  The  Story  of  Corn 

i 

Carolina.  But  it  was  not  until  three  years  later 
that  he  had  his  first  view  of  the  blue-grass  region 
of  Kentucky.  While  looking  from  a  Cumberland 
Mountain  peak  at  a  herd  of  buffaloes  grazing  below, 
he  is  reported  to  have  said: 

' '  I  am  richer  than  the  man  in  the  scriptures,  who 
owned  the  catties  on  a  thousand  hills.  I  own  the 
wild  beasts  of  more  than  a  thousand  valleys." 

It  was  really  a  hunter's  paradise;  and  Boone  was 
a  great  hunter.  On  account  of  the  hostility  of  the 
Indians  he  did  not  enter  the  blue-grass  region  on 
this  trip,  but  determined  to  visit  Kentucky  at  some 
future  time.  Two  years  later  he  made  another 
attempt  to  explore  this  region,  but  after  touching 
the  eastern  edge  of  it,  and  taking  many  furs  in  the 
winter's  hunt,  he  found  the  journey  so  difficult  that 
he  returned  home. 

Boone  was  constantly  sounding  the  praise  of  this 
new  country.  It  fascinated  him.  He  made  several 
other  visits,  each  time  returning  laden  with  valuable 
furs.  On  the  last  of  these  hunting  trips  he  selected 
a  site  for  a  home  and  returned  to  get  his  family  and 
others  who  might  desire  to  accompany  him.  On 
September  25,  1773,  with  his  wife  and  children  and 
a  number  of  other  families,  he  started  for  the  blue- 
grass  country.  As  the  large  caravan  passed  through 
Cumberland  Gap  on  the  old  Indian  trail  it  was 
joined  by  many  other  emigrants  from  the  valley  of 
Virginia.  Leading  their  pack  horses  and  driving 
their  cattle  before  them,  they  journeyed  westward 
to  a  new  home. 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country  101 

But  the  party  was  not  destined  to  enter  the  blue- 
grass  region  without  many  hardships.  The  Indians, 
ever  remembering  the  French  and  Indian  War,  were 
planning  a  general  uprising  to  drive  out  the  English. 
In  their  first  encounter  with  Boone's  party  several 
of  Boone's  men  were  killed,  among  them  Boone's 
eldest  son.  Throughout  the  entire  Ohio  Valley  the 
Indians  carried  on  the  bloody  war,  and  it  was  not 
until  1775  that  Boone  reached  the  spot  he  had 
selected  for  his  new  home.  In  the  meantime  other 
settlers  had  preceded  him  into  the  new  country. 
A  settlement  had  been  made  by  James  Harrod,  in 
1774,  several  months  before  Boone's  party  arrived. 
In  the  same  year,  1774,  the  Ohio  Indians  made  a 
treaty  with  Virginia,  surrendering  all  their  land  south 
of  the  Ohio  River.  In  the  following  year  the 
Cherokees  ceded  all  of  their  territory  south  of  the 
Ohio  as  well  as  that  between  the  Kentucky  and 
Cumberland  rivers,  known  as  Transylvania.  Less 
than  a  month  after  the  treaty  was  made  Boone 
founded  Boonesboro,  which  became  the  headquarters 
of  the  colony. 

By  the  indescribable  energy,  courage,  and  heroism 
of  Daniel  Boone  the  way  was  finally  opened  for 
hundreds  of  emigrants  from  the  seaboard  to  enter 
the  great  prairie  country.  The  old  Indian  trail 
through  Cumberland  Gap  was  widened  into  a  road 
known  as  "The  Wilderness  Road,"  which  became 
the  main  highway  between  the  seaboard  and  the 
land  beyond  the  mountains.  This  Kentucky  coun- 
try now  became  a  part  of  the  territory  of  Virginia. 


102 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Fertility  of  the  Western  Country.  In  1779,  when 
the  pioneers  and  settlers  were  pouring  through  the 
passes  of  the  mountains  into  the  great  plain  now 
known  as  Kentucky,  Virginia  offered  each  house- 
holder four  hundred  acres  of  land  at  the  rate  of  two 
dollars  and  a  half  a  hundred  acres,  on  condition 
that  a  house  should  be  built  and  corn  planted  within 
a  year.  A  writer  describing  this  new  country  said : 

"A  log  house  is  very  soon  erected.     Sometimes 


Photograph  by  Wm.  Baylis 


A  typical  home  of  the  early  settlers  in  the  corn  country 

they  are  built  of  round  logs  entirely,  covered  with 
rived  ash  shingles,  and  the  interstices  stopped  with 
clay  or  lime  and  sand  to  keep  out  the  weather.  The 
next  object  is  to  open  the  land  for  cultivation. 
There  is  very  little  underwood  in  any  part  of  this 
country,  so  that  by  cutting  up  the  cane  and  grubbing 
up  the  trees  you  are  sure  of  a  corn  crop.  .  .  .  The 
ground  will  yield  from  fifty  to  sixty  bushels  of  corn 
to  the  acre.  The  second  crop  will  be  more  ample; 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country  103 

and  as  the  shade  is  removed  by  cutting  the  timber 
away,  a  great  part  of  our  land  will  produce  from 
seventy  to  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn  from 
one  acre.  This  extraordinary  fertility  enables  the 
farmer*  who  has  but  a  small  capital  to  increase 
his  wealth  in  a  most  rapid  manner." 

A  hundred  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  is  indeed  a 
bountiful  yield,  and  with  thousands  of  buffaloes 
flourishing  on  grass  and  wild  clover,  turkeys  so 
numerous  that  they  appeared  to  be  one  flock  scat- 
tered in  the  forests,  and  the  woods  abounding  in 
wild  game,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  this  country  would 
attract  many  settlers  from  the  East.  And  they 
came.  The  old  Wilderness  Road  was  at  times 
crowded  with  families  seeking  new  homes  in  the 
land  of  abundance.  They  came  chiefly  from  the 
southern  colonies.  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South 
Carolina,  and  Georgia  sent  many  thousands  annu- 
ally. The  Indians  were  still  hostile  north  of  the 
Ohio,  and  many  settlers  from  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland  crossed  Virginia,  took  the  old  Indian 
trail  to  Cumberland  Gap,  and  either  entered  Ten- 
nessee or  followed  the  Wilderness  Road  into  the 
blue-grass  country. 

Troubles  with  England.  However,  before  this 
western  country  was  securely  settled,  the  thirteen 
colonies  along  the  coast  were  having  serious  trouble 
with  the  mother  country.  Such  prosperity  as  we 
have  described  in  this  new  world,  where  land  was 
practically  free,  food  plentiful,  and  living  easy, 
would  naturally  develop  a  spirit  of  freedom, — an 


104  The  Story  of  Corn 

independence  of  thought  not  easily  controlled  by 
England  three  thousand  miles  away.  Histories  tell 
the  causes  and  results  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 
If  you  will  study  these  causes  you  will  find  that 
complaints  of  the  colonists  were  directed  against 
what  they  considered  violations  of  their  rights  as 
free  English  citizens  in  America.  Many  of  these 
men  who  were  clamoring  for  rights  had  been  tenants 
in  the  old  country.  Now  they  were  no  longer 
tenants,  subject  to  the  will  of  a  landlord.  The  free 
spirit,  nourished  and  cherished  in  this  free,  open 
country,  soon  rebelled ;  the  result  was  the  American 
Revolution,  which  gave  independence  to  the  English 
colonies  in  America.  But  while  the  thirteen  colo- 
nies were  fighting  under  George  Washington  for  inde- 
pendence, a  band  of  settlers  beyond  the  mountains 
was  pushing  across  the  Ohio  River  into  the  prairie 
region  and  opening  up  the  great  corn  country. 

George  Rogers  Clark.  It  was  chiefly  through  the 
courage  of  one  man,  George  Rogers  Clark,  of  Virginia, 
that  the  country  which  has  since  become  the  center 
of  the  corn  production  was  saved  to  the  United 
States.  In  the  same  year  that  Daniel  Boone 
founded  Boonesboro,  Clark  went  as  surveyor  to 
the  new  Ohio  country,  and  the  next  year  (1775) 
he  established  his  home  in  Kentucky.  The  thirteen 
colonies  had  declared  their  independence,  and  the 
old  French  settlements  north  of  the  Ohio  incited 
the  Indians  to  rebellion.  The  western  settlements 
had  to  fight  again  the  French  and  the  Indians  who 
still  remembered  the  earlier  French  and  Indian  War. 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country 


105 


Clark's  iron  will,  independent  spirit,  audacious  cour- 
age, and  magnificent  physique  soon  made  him  a 
leader  among  his  frontier  neighbors. 

While  thousands  of  settlers  were  now  following 
the  southern  trail  through  Cumberland  Gap  and 


The  Ohio  River  at  Parkersburg,  W.  Va.     The  fertile  plain  north 

of  the  Ohio,  won  through  the  bravery  of  George  Rogers  Clark, 

gave  the  new  nation  the  greatest  corn  country  in  the  world 

along  the  Wilderness  Road  into  the  great  corn 
country,  as  yet  they  had  not  crossed  the  Ohio  River. 
The  fertile  prairies  were  still  in  the  possession  of  the 
Indians,  who  were  again  at  war  with  the  Kentucky 
settlers.  Arms  and  ammunition  were  especially 
needed  to  drive  back  the  Indians.  Clark,  soon 
after  his  arrival,  was  chosen  to  go  back  to  Virginia, 
the  parent  colony,  and  ask  the  legislature  for  these 
supplies.  Accompanied  by  a  trusted  friend,  he  set 
out  at  once.  After  many  hardships,  thrilling  expe- 
riences, and  much  delay,  they  received  an  order 


io6  The  Story  of  Corn 

for  the  needed  supplies,  and  set  out  on  the  return 
journey,  a  party  of  seven  men  altogether.  Cross- 
ing back  over  the  mountains  by  the  same  trails 
they  had  followed  to  Virginia,  they  traveled  down 
the  Ohio,  fighting  as  they  went,  and  after  many 
hardships  delivered  the  ammunition  to  the  settlers. 

How  the  Corn  Country  was  taken.  The  new 
colony  was  hundreds  of  miles  from  Virginia,  and 
was  constantly  overrun  with  the  most  bloodthirsty 
savages.  The  settlers  were  forced  to  spend  much 
of  their  time  defending  their  forts,  attending  to  the 
wounded,  and  burying  the  dead.  They  could  raise 
few  crops.  Therefore  they  had  to  depend  for  food 
almost  entirely  on  hunting.  The  danger  was  so  great 
that  it  was  only  with  the  utmost  care  that  they  could 
do  any  work  at  all.  They  were  fortunate  in  having 
their  small  patches  of  corn  to  rely  upon  for  some 
food.  No  other  grain  would  have  yielded  so  abun- 
dantly under  such  difficulties.  In  fact,  it  was  the  corn 
patches  around  the  forts  that  saved  Boone's  colony 
from  perishing.  In  this  country  also  the  Indians 
raised  great  quantities  of  corn,  so  Boone's  men  fre- 
quently seized  food  from  the  Indian  villages.  But 
as  the  war  between  England  and  the  colonies 
continued,  the  situation  in  Kentucky  grew  worse, 
until  some  thought  the  only  way  to  have  peace 
and  security  from  the  Indians  was  to  surrender  to 
the  English  and  be  carried  as  prisoners  to  Detroit. 

At  this  time  Clark  decided  to  return  again  to 
Virginia  and  ask  for  troops.  The  governor  promised 
troops  if  men  could  be  found;  but  the  home  state 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country  107 

needed  all  the  men  it  had,  and  more.  However, 
the  government  did  promise  to  give  three  hundred 
acres  of  land  in  the  acquired  territory  to  each  man 
who  helped  to  win  it.  Clark  returned  to  Kentucky 
with  a  company  of  about  one  hundred  fifty  men. 
It  was  decided  to  cross  the  Ohio  and  attack  the 
French  town  of  Kaskaskia,  lying  on  the  Mississippi 
River  in  the  present  state  of  Illinois.  On  the  even- 
ing of  July  4,  1778,  the  soldiers  reached  Kaskaskia. 
The  appearance  of  Clark  was  so  unexpected  that 
the  town  surrendered  without  resistance.  Satisfied 
with  the  assurance  that  its  people  would  be  well 
treated  if  they  submitted  to  the  Virginian  govern- 
ment, the  little  French  town  became  an  American 
possession.  Clark  then  sent  a  small  company  up 
the  river  to  capture  the  neighboring  town  of  Cahokia. 
It,  too,  was  surprised,  and  surrendered  without 
resistance. 

These  military  expeditions  in  southern  Illinois 
were  so  successful  that  it  was  next  decided  to  march 
across  the  present  state  of  Illinois  and  capture  Vin- 
cennes,  an  important  stronghold  on  the  Indiana  side 
of  the  Wabash. 

The  easy  capture  of  Vincennes  completed  the 
conquest  of  southern  Illinois.  The  French  inhabit- 
ants of  these  towns,  who  had  been  on  friendly  terms 
with  the  Indians,  persuaded  them  to  make  peace 
with  the  white  men,  or  "Long  Knives,"  as  Clark's 
soldiers  were  called.  Clark  had  so  impressed  the 
Indians  with  his  bravery  and  his  fighting  qualities 
that  they  agreed  to  remain  at  peace. 


io8  The  Story  of  Corn 

With  these  victories  Kentucky  was  delivered  from 
much  of  its  danger,  and  the  territory  north  of  the 
Ohio  was  at  last  free  to  become  a  part  of  the  new 
nation  as  soon  as  the  treaties  could  be  made  with 
foreign  countries.  Twice  the  settlers  had  had  to 
fight  for  possession  of  this  great  valley.  They 
first  took  it  from  the  French  nation  and  made  it 
English  territory.  English  colonists  under  Clark 
fought  the  French  settlers  and  the  Indians  and 
secured  to  the  new  nation  the  greatest  river  valley 
in  the  world.  In  taking  possession  of  it,  moreover, 
the  pioneers  of  Boone  and  Clark  discovered  that 
this  was  the  greatest  corn  country  in  the  world, 
producing  in  some  places  from  fifty  to  seventy-five 
or  even  a  hundred  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre,  and 
this  was  done  by  settlers  who  had  few  implements 
and  no  improved  machinery  with  which  to  cultivate 
the  land.  It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  that  settlers 
in  the  East  would  not  live  as  tenants,  or  even  work 
poor  land  of  their  own,  when  by  simply  crossing  the 
mountains  they  could  take  up  this  land  at  a  very 
small  cost,  and  by  scratching  the  surface  with  a 
piece  of  crooked  iron,  used  both  as  a  hoe  and  a  plow, 
get  fifty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre.  Such  a  wonder- 
ful yield  with  so  little  labor  began  at  once  to  draw 
the  surplus  population  from  the  East  and  even  from 
Europe.  Indeed,  so  great  did  the  stream  of  immi- 
grants become  that  the  stability  of  the  East  at  times 
seemed  threatened. 

The  Geography  of  the  Corn  Country.  The  map 
of  the  United  States  shows  that  the  Ohio  Raver  rises 


Opening  the  Great  Corn  Country  109 

in  western  Pennsylvania,  and,  flowing  in  a  south- 
westerly direction,  empties  into  the  Mississippi  River 
near  the  southwestern  corner  of  Kentucky.  If  we 
now  proceed  up  the  Mississippi  to  the  Missouri, 
thence  up  the  Missouri  bordering  Nebraska  and 
through  the  Dakotas,  we  have  marked  out  the  great 
Northwest.  Ohio,  on  the  east,  is  neither  upland  nor 
lowland,  but  is  in  general  a,  plain  with  an  average 
altitude  of  from  eight  hundred  to  nine  hundred  feet. 
This  plain  slopes  gradually  from  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  on  the  east  toward  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  A  line  of  low  hills  running  north 
of  the  middle  of  Ohio  divides  the  water  flow,  some 
rivers  emptying  into  Lake  Erie  and  others  into  the 
Ohio  River.  Ohio  is  not  a  prairie  state,  since  it  was 
originally  covered  with  forests  of  walnut,  beech, 
maple,  buckeye,  chestnut,  ash,  and  hickory. 

Indiana  is  very  much  like  Ohio,  although  about 
one  eighth  of  it  is  strictly  prairie.  Illinois  is  the 
great  prairie  state.  Here  LaSalle  found  the  open 
meadows  "with  rank  herbage  and  deep  black  soil, 
with  shallow  valleys  and  sluggish  rivers."  When 
trees  appear  they  grow  along  the  rivers.  Crossing 
the  Mississippi,  we  find  that  Iowa  is  much  Jike 
Illinois.  Westward,  the  plain  rises  gradually  to  the 
highlands  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  But  west  of 
the  central  portions  of  Nebraska  the  rainfall  de- 
creases, fields  of  grain  begin  to  disappear,  and 
pasture  lands  are  more  abundant.  Here  the  corn 
country  ends.  A  change  in  climatic  conditions 
produces  an  arid  region,  which  begins  in  central 


no  The  Story  of  Corn 

Nebraska  and  Kansas  and  extends  westward  to  the 
mountains.  Parts  of  Missouri,  like  Iowa,  are  nearly 
forestless.  The  border  state  of  Kentucky  is  much 
like  the  country  to  the  north  of  the  Ohio. 

Since  there  were  no  trees  to  clear  away,  the  first 
settlers  in  this  prairie  country  had  nothing  to  do 
but  break  the  ground,  plant  the  corn,  and  harvest 
tremendous  crops.  For  thousands  of  years  nature 
had  been  enriching  the  soil.  The  Indians,  it  is  said, 
had  long  ago  burned  the  trees  away,  and  the  white 
man  found  a  veritable  garden  spot,  a  farmer's 
paradise.  Such  was  the  prairie  country  that  was 
soon  to  become  the  great  granary  of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SETTLING  THE  CORN  COUNTRY 

Beyond  the  Appalachians.  The  Appalachian 
Mountains,  extending  from  Maine  to  Alabama,  for 
nearly  two  centuries  acted  as  a  natural  barrier  to 
the  westward  movement  of  population. 

Even  when  Washington  took  command  of  the 
Revolutionary  army,  only  a  small  band  of  home- 
seekers,  chiefly  hunters  and  trappers,  had  crossed 
over  into  that  unknown  region  west  of  the  Appala- 
chian ranges.  A  fort  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio 


Fort  Pitt  to-day.     In  17,76  this  little  fort  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio 

was  the  center  of  one  of  the  three  settlements  in  that  vast 

valley  now  the  center  of  the  world's  food  supply 


in 


712  The  Story  of  Corn 

River,  and  around  it  were  built  some  twenty  or 
more  log  huts,  where  traders  and  trappers  collected 
furs  and  prepared  them  for  the  markets  of  the  East. 
A  small  settlement  was  to  be  found  in  Tennessee, 
and  another  in  Kentucky.  These  were  practically 
all  the  English  settlers  between  the  great  Appala- 
chian Mountains  and  the  Mississippi  River,  an  area 
larger  than  the  whole  country  east  of  the  moun- 
tains. When  independence  was  secured  and  the 
land  west  of  the  mountains  was  wrested  from  the 
hands  of  the  savages,  little  did  the  world  foresee 
that  the  small  patches  of  corn  cultivated  by  the 
first  settlers  would  spread  over  the  whole  prairie 
country,  making  the  Northwest  the  center  of  the 
world's  food  supply  and  transferring  the  heart  of 
the  nation  from  the  seacoast  to  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi Valley. 

In  those  days  the  East  knew  less  about  the  West 
than  we  to-day  know  about  the  interior  of  China. 
But  after  the  war  the  government  needed  money. 
Taxes  were  much  talked  of,  and  there  was  little 
money  in  the  country.  Land  along  the  coast  was 
costly,  food  was  getting  higher  and  higher,  and 
people  were  often  imprisoned  for  debt.  In  the 
wild  country  beyond  the  mountains,  land  was  prac- 
tically free,  and  the  luxuriant  cornfields  told  of  a 
prosperity  that  was  unknown  in  many  sections  of 
the  East,  where  the  land  was  often  barren  and 
rocky  and,  because  the  soil  was  thin,  growing  less 
and  less  productive  every  year.  The  growing  hard- 
ships in  the  East  and  the  increasing  attractions 


Settling  the  Corn  Country 

offered  by  the  West  were  destined  to  disturb  the 
whole  economic  life  of  the  people  under  the  new 
government.  But  there  were  many  difficulties  to 
be  overcome  before  the  rich  cornfields  of  the  West 
could  command  the  homage  of  the  East  and  the 
patronage  of  the  world. 

Political  Difficulties:  (i)  States'  Rights.  The 
period  from  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  to 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  in  1789  is  rightly 
named  the  "Critical  Period"  of  our  history.  No 
strong  central  government  existed.  Each  state 
was  practically  independent,  and  jealous  of  its 
rights.  Foreign  countries  had  little  faith  in  the 
new  nation.  English  statesmen  openly  prophesied 
that  these  thirteen  states  would  soon  fall  to  quarrel- 
ing and  fighting  with  one  another,  that  England 
would  be  called  upon  again  to  take  possession  of 
the  government,  and  that  the  last  estate  of  this  new, 
loosely  constructed  nation  would  be  worse  than  the 
first. 

It  is  well  to  remember  in  the  first  place  that  all 
the  land  west  of  the  mountains  was  claimed  by  the 
states  east  of  the  mountains.  For  example,  Vir- 
ginia claimed  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  a  part  of  Minnesota. 
Massachusetts  claimed  western  New  York  and  a 
part  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  Connecticut  and 
New  York  likewise  claimed  a  part  of  the  latter  states. 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia  claimed 
all  the  territory  lying  south  of  Virginia  and  between 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Mississippi  River. 


j\°~ — 1? 

>0  S  S  E^S 


BAHAMA 
ISLANDS 


THE  UNITED  STATES 

at  the  Close  of  the 
REVOLUTIONARY  WAR 

SCALE   OF    MILES 


Map  showing  the  claims  of  the  thirteen  states 


Settling  the  Corn  Country  115 

Even  before  peace  had  been  declared  with  Eng- 
land a  controversy  arose  between  Virginia  and  the 
states  to  the  north  over  the  possession  of  the  vast 
territory  between  the  Ohio  River  and  the  Great 
Lakes. 

While  the  states  were  disputing  over  this  western 
territory,  Congress  was  unable  to  raise  taxes  or  to 
pay  the  soldiers  for  their  services  during  the  war. 
Washington  pleaded  with  them  to  go  home;  but 
they  would  not  disband  until  they  had  obtained  some 
assurance  that  they  would  receive  their  back  pay. 
Seeing  no  prospects  of  being  paid,  they  became 
enraged  over  this  seeming  disregard  of  their  dues, 
and  more  than  a  hundred  of  them  marched  into 
Philadelphia,  where  Congress  was  sitting.  Such  a 
boisterous  and  riotous  demonstration  was  made 
that  Congress  was  frightened,  the  members  fleeing 
across  the  river  into  New  Jersey. 

(2)  Forming  the  Northwest  Territory.  This  inci- 
dent showed  how  helpless  the  new  nation  was  in 
times  of  distress.  There  was  also  much  discontent 
otherwise  throughout  the  several  states.  The  little 
colonies  west  of  the  mountains  in  Tennessee  and 
Kentucky  became  dissatisfied,  and  either  revolted 
or  threatened  to  revolt  from  the  parent  states.  The 
government  was  unable  to, pay  its  debts  or  to  keep 
its  contracts  with  foreign  countries.  A  tax  was 
levied  on  food  products,  though  the  cost  of  living 
was  already  excessively  high.  To  add  to  this 
trouble  at  home  England  was  still  arrogant  and 
hostile  toward  the  new  country. 


u6  The  Story  of  Corn 

In  the  midst  of  these  difficulties,  General  Rufus 
Putnam,  of  Massachusetts,  sent  to  Congress  the 
outline  of  a  plan  to  colonize  the  region  between  Lake 
Erie  and  the  Ohio  River  with  veterans  of  the  army, 
who  were  fitted  to  protect  the  border  from  Indian 
attacks.  The  land  was  to  be  laid  out  in  townships 
six  miles  square,  "with  large  reservations  for  the 
ministry  and  schools."  Penniless  Congress,  by 
selling  the  land  to  the  soldiers  at  a  merely  nominal 
price,  might  obtain  an  income,  and  at  the  same  time 
recompense  the  old  soldiers  for  their  services  in  the 
only  substantial  way  that  now  seemed  practicable. 
Washington  greatly  favored  this  scheme.  The 
states  were  willing  to  give  up  their  claims  to  the 
western  territory;  and  the  old  soldiers  were  glad  to 
accept  this  land  in  settlement  of  their  claims  against 
the  government.  A  series  of  treaties  were  made 
with  the  Indians,  and  a  large  number  of  settlers- 
old  soldiers  of  excellent  character  whom  the  war 
had  impoverished — were  ready  to  go  and  take 
possession  at  once.  Thus  was  laid  the  foundation 
of  what  is  known  in  history  as  the  "Northwest 
Territory." 

(3)  Government  of  the  Northwest.  It  became 
necessary  at  once  to  provide  some  kind  of  govern- 
ment for  this  region.  The  act  of  Congress  organ- 
izing the  "Northwest  Territory"  into  a  separate 
government  is  called  the  Ordinance  of  1787.  It 
provided  that  this  territory  should  ultimately  be 
divided  into  states  not  exceeding  five  in  number, 
any  one  of  which  might  be  admitted  into  the  Union 


Settling  the  Corn  Country  tif 

as  soon  as  the  population  should  reach  sixty  thou- 
sand. In  the  meantime  settlers  were  to  be  "under 
the  immediate  government  of  Congress."  There 
was  to  be  "unqualified  freedom  of  religious  worship," 
public  schools  were  to  be  established,  and  slavery 
was  to  be  abolished.  Out  of  this  territory  were 
formed  later  the  prosperous  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  a  combined  area 
somewhat  larger  than  that  of  Germany  with  The 
Netherlands. 

General  St.  Clair  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
Northwest  Territory;  surveys  were  made;  land  was 
put  up  and  sold  at  sixty-six  cents  an  acre,  payable 
in  certificates  of  public  debt;  and  settlers  came  in 
rapidly.  The  western  exodus  from  Pennsylvania  and 
New  England  now  began,  and  only  sixteen  years 
elapsed  before  Ohio,  the  first  of  the  five  states, 
was  admitted  into  the  Union. 

The  Difficulties  in  the  West.  The  first  great 
difficulty  was  in  reaching  the  West.  The  four 
routes  that  led  to  this  remarkable  country,  as  out- 
lined in  the  preceding  chapter,  were  (i)  the  Hudson- 
Mohawk  trail,  (2)  the  Pennsylvania  trail,  from 
Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh,  (3)  the  Potomac  River 
trail,  and  (4)  the  trail  through  Cumberland  Gap  and 
along  the  Wilderness  Road.  The  first  two  were 
the  most  popular  highways  after  the  organization 
of  the  Northwest  Territory.  The  map  on  page  95 
shows  why  Pittsburgh  was  the  favorite  gathering 
place  for  emigrants  from  the  East.  After  reach- 
ing Pittsburgh  they  constructed  rude  boats  and 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

The  Mohawk  Valley,  New  York.     The  most  important  of  the  four 

great  natural  highways  leading  through  the  mountains  from 

the  seacoast  to  the  Mississippi  Valley 

floated  down  the  Ohio.  Each  year,  at  the  opening 
of  spring,  after  the  ice  began  to  break  on  the  river, 
scarcely  a  week  went  by  in  the  early  nineties  but  a 
score  of  flatboats,  keel  boats,  dugouts,  barges,  and 
canoes  passed  down  the  river.  The  journey  was 
beset  with  many  dangers.  The  river  was  obstructed 
with  floating  trees  and  snags  likely  to  wreck  the 
boats,  and  Indians  lurked  along  the  banks  with 
rifles  ready  to  pick  off  the  men  without  warning. 
The  cabins  of  the  boats  were  built  low  and  lined 
with  blankets  and  feather  beds  to  protect  the 
inmates  from  bullets. 

This  new  country  was  undoubtedly  rich  in  natural 
resources.     But  resources  are  of  little  yalue,  beyond 


Settling  the  Corn  Country  IIQ 

supplying  the  necessities  of  life,  unless  a  market  is 
obtainable.  Hence  the  next  great  difficulty  in  the 
way  of  the  prosperity  of  the  West  was  the  lack  of  a 
market  in  which  the  settlers  could  sell  their  produce. 
To  send  it  back  across  the  mountains  to  Philadelphia 
or  Baltimore  was  out  of  the  question  —  that  was  a 
difficult  journey  for  men  unencumbered.  The  Mis- 
sissippi River  gave  a  natural  outlet;  but  that  was 
controlled  by  the  Spanish. 

The  West  was  growing  at  a  rapid  rate.  By  1790 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  had  over  a  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants.  They  had  come  by  way  of 
Cumberland  Gap,  and  their  only  trade  routes  were 
along  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  In  vain 
did  they  plead  with  Congress  to  make  a  treaty  with 
Spain  which  would  give  them  the  privilege  of 
running  boats  down  the  Mississippi.  Their  plea 
was  opposed  especially  by  New  England,  because 
the  West  was  drawing  away  its  population.  The 
settlers  along  the  Mississippi  and  the  Ohio  were 
roused  to  fighting  pitch  when  they  saw  their  prod- 
ucts go  down  the  Mississippi  only  to  be  confiscated 
by  the  Spanish,  and  the  owners  of  the  vessels  com- 
pelled to  walk  back  home  a  thousand  miles  through 
the  forest.  Their  rage  was  still  greater  when  the 
United  States  made  a  treaty  .with  Spain  and  ignored 
their  petition.  It  was  then  that  the  West  seriously 
considered  separating  from  the  East  and  joining  the 
Spanish  provinces,  in  order  that  they  might  have  a 
market  in  which  to  sell  their  products.  Conditions 
in  the  West  fostered  the  love  of  individual  liberty, 


120 


The  Story  of  Corn 


and  settlers  from  the  old  states  of  Massachusetts  or 
Virginia  were  ready  to  separate  from  their  parent 


Prom  Mace's  "School  History" 


Settlers  moving  west  along  the  Cumberland  Roa<Ton  their  way  to  new 
homes  in  the  fertile  blue-grass  country  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee 

states  and   even   to   go   to  war  with  them   when 
their   rights  and  liberties  were  interfered  with. 


Settling  the  Corn  Country  121 

In  1794,  however,  a  treaty  was  made  with  Spain 
which  opened  the  Mississippi  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States  "to  deposit  their  merchandise  and 
effects  at  the  port  of  New  Orleans  and  to  export 
them  from  thence  without  paying  any  other  duty, 
than  a  fair  price  for  the  hire  of  the  stores."  The 
West  could  now  send  its  produce  to  the  outside 
world.  But  within  a  few  years  (1800)  Spain  lost 
her  territory  west  of  the  river  to  France,  and  for  a 
time  it  looked  as  if  America  would  have  to  go  to 
war  with  France. 

Spain  was  a  weak  nation,  and  America  had  nothing 
to  fear  from  her  possessing  the  Mississippi  Valley; 
but  when  France  took  this  territory  from  Spain  a 
real  difficulty  was  presented.  France  was  the  most 
powerful  nation  in  the  world.  President  Jefferson 
said:  "There  is  on  the  globe  one  single  spot,  the 
possessor  of  which  is  our  national  enemy.  It  is 
New  Orleans,  through  which  the  produce  of  three 
eighths  of  our  territory  must  pass  to  market,  and  from 
its  fertility  it  will,  ere  long,  yield  more  than  one  half 
of  our  whole  produce  and  contain  more  than  half 
our  inhabitants."  It  is  easy  now  to  see  that  Presi- 
dent Jefferson  was  right.  It  was  necessary  for 
the  United  States  to  own  the  land  on  both  sides  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  1803  this  country  purchased 
from  France  the  vast  territory  known  as  Louisiana, 
in  order  that  the  western  settlers  might  have  the 
free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  First  Settlement  in  the  Corn  Country.  When 
the  public  lands  north  of  the  Ohio  River  were  taken 


122  The  Story  of  Corn 

from  the  individual  states  and  turned  over  to 
Congress,  the  old  soldiers  saw  early  prospects  of 
receiving  payment  for  their  war  services,  and  the 
nation  saw  a  great  revenue  to  be  derived  from  the 
sale  of  land.  Land  companies  immediately  sprang 
into  existence,  chief  of  which  was  the  Ohio  Company, 
organized  by  Generals  Rufus  Putnam  and  Benjamin 
Tupper  of  Revolutionary  fame.  The  Ohio  Company 
had  bought  a  million  and  a  half  acres  of  land,  and 
private  speculators  more  than  twice  as  much.  In 
1788,  the  year  after  the  organization  of  the  North- 
west Territory,  a  boatload  of  New  Englanders  sent 
out  by  the  Ohio  Company  drifted  down  the  Ohio 
River  to  the  mouth  of  the  Muskingum  River,  and 
landed  in  the  wilderness  a  short  distance  up  the 
Muskingum,  opposite  Fort  Harmer.  Rough  boards 
taken  from  the  boat  made  rude  houses  for  the  new 
settlers  of  this  little  village  of  Marietta.  Such  was 
the  beginning  of  the  settlement  of  the  West  by 
New  England  farmers  and  old  soldiers.  In  the  same 
year  settlers  crossed  the  Ohio  from  Kentucky  and, 
being  joined  by  other  settlers  from  the  East  who  had 
floated  down  the  river  from  Pittsburgh,  founded 
Cincinnati,  which  later  became  the  capital  of  the 
Northwest  Territory. 

This  was  a  wonderful  country,  and  many  remark- 
able stories  of  it  were  sent  back  to  New  England. 
It  was  referred  to  as  a  new  land  of  promise,  the 
garden  spot  of  the  world,  the  seat  of  great  natural 
wealth,  the  center  of  a  great  empire.  Immigrants 
were  offered  farms  at  a  few  shillings  an  acre,  with 


Settling  the  Corn  Country  123 

free  transportation.  Such  glowing  accounts  and  such 
attractive  offers  drew  large  numbers  from  the  East. 

As  early  as  1788-89  between  eight  and  nine 
hundred  boats  went  down  the  Ohio  past  Fort 
Harmer,  or  Marietta  as  it  was  now  called,  carrying 
as  many  as  twenty  thousand  people,  with  about 
seven  thousand  horses,  three  thousand  cows,  nine 
thousand  sheep,  and'  six  hundred  wagons.  The 
country  far  beyond  the  Mississippi  stretched  before 
these  emigrants  with  a  strange  fascination.  There 
was  now  no  mountain  barrier — nothing  but  the 
Indians  to  stop  them  in  their  journeys  westward. 

The  Great  Migration  Westward.  There  is  no 
period  in  the  history  of  America  more  crowded 
with  adventure  and  thrilling  stories  than  the  first 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the  people 
of  the  seaboard  states  awoke  to  the  vast  possibilities 
of  the  West.  The  period  of  distress  which  followed 
the  Revolution  and  continued  until  after  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution  sent  people  westward  in 
such  numbers  as  threatened  to  depopulate  the  states 
along  the  seaboard.  The  greatest  rush  at  first 
was  into  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  These  settlers 
came  largely  from  the  states  south  of  the  Potomac 
River,  and  entered  the  West  by  way  of  the  old 
Wilderness  Road.  At  the  close  of  the  century 
there  were  325,000  people  in  these  two  states, 
and  more  than  50,000  in  the  Northwest  Territory. 
In  1800  the  government  adopted  the  method  of 
selling  the  Ohio  lands  on  credit.  This,  coupled 
with  the  high  price  of  grain,  sent  thousands  along 


124 


The  Story  of  Corn 


I — I  Under  2  per  square  mile 
(m^  j  to  t>  per  square  milt 
£gg  6  ti  45  per  square  mile 
^  45  to  go  fer  square  mile 
IB  9°  Pcr  *1-'">le  <""t  over 
*    Center  of  population 


The  United  States  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 

showing  the  distribution  of  population  per  square  mile 

and  the  center  of  population 

the  Mohawk  Valley  and  the  old  Lancaster  Road 
to  Pittsburgh.  Wheat  in  England  was  selling  for 
$3.40  a  bushel,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  were 
facing  starvation.  These  conditions  made  the 
price  of  bread  in  America  continue  to  rise.  At 
the  same  time  fabulous  stories  of  corn  production 
came  to  the  people  along  the  seaboard  from  the 
land  west  of  the  mountains.  The  next  year  (1801) 
wheat  went  up  to  $3.50  a  bushel  in  England.  War 
was  drawing  the  laborers  from  the  fields  of  Europe, 
and  the  world's  bread  supply  was  short.  Every 
small  farmer,  whose  barren  acres  were  covered  with 
mortgages,  whose  debts  pressed  heavily  upon  him, 
or  whose  roving  spirit  gave  him  no  peace,  felt  the 
call  of  the  frontiers.  The  fertile  valleys  of  the 
West  lured  him,  and  he  became  eager  at  once  to 


Settling  the  Corn  Country  125 

sell  his  homestead  for  what  it  would  bring,  save 
what  he  could  from  the  general  wreck,  and  begin 
life  anew  in  the  wild,  free  country  of  the  West. 
"Westward  ho!"  was  the  cry;  and  so  many  heeded 
it  that  at  the  return  of  every  spring  hundreds  of 
boats  went  down  the  Ohio,  loaded  with  cattle  and 
household  goods.  In  1800  Ohio  had  45,365  settlers; 
three  years  later  it  became  a  state.  In  1810  nearly 
a  million  people  had  found  homes  in  the  great  West. 

Still  westward  went  the  inhabitants  from  the 
seaboard;  first  into  Ohio,  then  into  Indiana.  In 
1810  there  were  only  24,520  inhabitants  within  the 
latter  territory;  ten  years  later  there  were  147,174. 
And  still  they  moved  westward.  Through  the 
state  of  Kentucky  they  came,  as  well,  pouring  across 
the  Ohio  River  into  Illinois  and  across  the  Mississippi 
into  Missouri.  By  1820  nearly  another  million  had 
been  added  to  the  population  of  the  West.  At  that 
time  there  were  55,000  settlers  in  Illinois  and 
66,000  in  Missouri.  At  one  time  during  the  War  of 
1812  wheat  was  selling  in  Europe  at  four  dollars  a 
bushel,  while  the  western  farmers  had  corn,  espe- 
cially, in  abundance,  which  they  were  willing  to  sell 
at  ten  cents  a  bushel.  In  1814  the  exodus  from  the 
seaboard  became  alarming.  Old  settlers  in  central 
New  York  declared  they  had  never  seen  so  many 
teams  and  sleighs  loaded  with  women,  children,  and 
household  goods.  The  period  from  1800  to  1820 
blocked  out  the  work  of  expansion  which  the  next 
two  decades  were  occupied  in  completing. 

Hardships   endured.    The   conditions  of   trade, 


126  The  Story  of  Corn 

commerce,  and  agriculture  in  the  East  kept  growing 
worse.  From  Europe  came  the  demand  for  more 
wheat.  But  wheat  was  not  to  be  had.  During 
the  War  of  1812  prices  rose,  and  the  supply  along 
the  seaboard  was  practically  exhausted.  For  the 
first  time  since  those  stormy  days  of  the  James- 
town colony  and  the  Puritan  settlements  the  poorer 
classes  of  the  East  were  facing  a  shortage  of  food 
and  begging  bread  in  the  streets  of  the  cities.  Wheat 
was  selling  in  New  York  at  a  dollar  and  a  half, 
in  Europe  at  four  dollars.  For  the  first  time  since 
the  settlement  of  the  seaboard,  America  was  facing 
a  distressingly  short  food  supply.  Wheat  could  not 
be  relied  upon,  and  it  was  the  corn  of  America  that 
kept  the  western  continent  from  a  great  famine. 
No  wonder  the  East  was  moving  toward  the  West! 
New  England  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  gave 
up  their  population  in  large  numbers.  The  roads 
of  New  York  were  thronged  winter  and  spring  ' '  with 
flitting  families  from  the  Eastern  States'."  Men, 
women,  and  children  walked  all  the  way  from  Maine 
to  the  Ohio  River,  dragging  their  worldly  goods  and 
their  babies  in  hand  carts.  The  great  exodus  came 
in  1814.  In  this  year  flour  was  selling  for  ten  dollars 
a  barrel  in  Boston  and  Charleston.  Despairing  of 
better  times  at  home,  and  lured  on  by  the  stories 
which  came  back  from  the  West,  the  stream  of 
emigrants  increased.  An  almost  continuous  line  of 
wagons,  carts,  and  foot  parties  filled  the  highways 
and  choked  the  ferries,  so  eager  were  the  people  to 
enter  the  great  corn  country. 


Settling' the  Corn  Country 


127 


It  was  a  strange  crowd  that  passed  along  the  old 
Lancaster  Road  to  Pittsburgh.  It  was  a  motley 
crowd,  too,  drawn  from  every  eastern  state  and  from 
every  rank  of  life.  One  family  from  New  Jersey, 
consisting  of  father,  mother,  and  five  children,  walked 
the  rough  highway,  carrying  all  their  household 
goods  in  a  wheelbarrow.  A  blacksmith  from  Rhode 
Island  pushed  a  little  cart  containing  some  clothes 


^•Fl^ii^S*3*  -:  -  *  ... 


From  "The  Story  of  Chicaco' 

A  typical  tavern  of  the  early  West 

and  two  small  children,  while  the  mother,  with  an 
infant  at  her  breast  and  seven  children  beside, 
trudged  on  behind.  Another  couple  with  seven 
children  straggled  along,  the  man  carrying  all  their 
property  on  his  back.  Five  hundred  emigrants  a 
week  passed  through  Albany  in  1817;  and  by  1820 
the  tide  was  pouring  across  the  Mississippi  into  the 
present  state  of  Missouri.  All  roads  westward  were 
crowded.  Inns  and  taverns  sprang  up  along  the 


128  The  Story  of  Corn 

highways  and  did  a  thriving  business;  for  many  of 
the  settlers  were  in  a  prosperous  condition. 

The  emigrants  not  only  went  as  individuals  and 
by  families,  but  whole  villages  and  townships  mi- 
grated together.  A  train  of  sixteen  wagons  from 
Maine,  carrying  one  hundred  twenty  men,  women, 
and  children,  with  their  pastor,  passed  through 
Massachusetts  on  the  way  to  Indiana  to  buy  a 
township.  This  company  was  not  unlike  that  first 
Pilgrim  band  which  had  landed  on  the  shore  of 
Massachusetts  nearly  two  hundred  years  before. 

The  old  buffalo  trails  leading  north  and  south,  east 
and  west,  through  the  Blue  Grass  State  were  soon 
widened  into  roads  by  the  foot  parties  and  wagon 
trains  that  crossed  either  to  the  corn  country  beyond 
the  Ohio  River  or  to  the  cotton  country  far  to  the 
southwest. 

Emigration  from  Europe.  There  was  much  dis- 
tress in  Europe  at  the  close  of  the  great  wars  of  1815. 
The  eastern  states  of  America  had  felt  some  of  the 
hardship,  but  in  Europe  the  suffering  was  far  more 
severe.  The  fields  of  wheat  and  rye  had  been 
neglected  and  wasted;  in  many  places  the  poorer 
people  lived  on  roots,  herbs,  and  nuts,  and  some 
starved.  The  fame  of  the  great  corn  country  west 
of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  reached  these  hungry 
Europeans.  In  the  streets  of  European  cities  land 
agents  told  remarkable  stories  of  this  wonderful 
country  where  land  was  given  away,  where  corn 
was  produced  in  unlimited  quantities,  where  bread 
was  so  plentiful  that  not  even  the  dogs  suffered 


Settling  the  Corn  Country  129 

want.  Scarcity  of  food  in  Europe,  enormous  taxes, 
and  general  depression  of  trade  and  commerce  sent 
the  middle  class  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Germany 
to  our  shores  by  the  thousands.  The  argument  was 
strong  in  favor  of  the  New  World.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  that  great  immigration  movement  that 
was  to  add  millions  of  Europeans  to  our  population. 
It  is  said  that  thirty  thousand  foreigners  came  to 
America  in  1817. 

Effect  of  Migration  on  the  States  east  of  the 
Mountains.  The  migration  from  the  seaboard  was 
great  and  its  effects  were  very  noticeable.  Towns 
and  cities  ceased  to  grow.  The  Southern  States 
likewise  lost  heavily  in  population  to  the  West  and 
Southwest.  Some  of  the  finest  cotton  lands  in  all 
the  world  were  to  be  found  in  Alabama,  Mississippi, 
and  Louisiana.  These  would  produce  also  an  abun- 
dance of  corn.  After  Eli  Whitney  had  invented  the 
cotton  gin  and  the  textile  factory  had  created  the 
demand  for  the  cotton  of  the  South,  the  migration 
westward  became  tremendous.  This  was  especially 
noticeable  in  the  two  decades  from  1800  to  1820. 
Old  worn-out  lands  of  the  Coastal  States  were 
abandoned.  Small  farmers  and  tenants  unable  to 
secure  land  along  the  seaboard  turned  toward  the 
Southwest.  Moreover,  there  was  a  strong  anti- 
slavery  sentiment  in  the  piedmont  sections  of  the 
South.  The  Quakers  and  others,  true  to  their  con- 
victions, gave  up  their  homes  in  the  South  and 
moved  into  the  Northwest.  It  was  said  with  much 
truth  that  it  seemed  as  if  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas, 


IJO 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Tennessee,  and  even  Kentucky,  had  agreed  to  pour 
their  citizens  into  Missouri^  Illinois,  Indiana,  and 
Ohio  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  territories  states. 
Day  after '  day  every  ferry  on  the  Ohio  and  the 
Mississippi  was  crowded  with  passing  families,  with 
their  household  goods,  slaves,  wagons,  carts,  and 
carriages.  So  great  was  the  exodus  that  North 
Carolina  and  Virginia  took  measures  to  stop  it.  A 
committee  of  the  General  Assembly  of  Virginia 
made  this  interesting  report: 

' '  How  many  sad  spectacles  do  her  lowlands  present 
of  wasted  and  deserted  fields,  of  dwellings  abandoned 
by  the  proprietors,  of  churches  in  ruin !  The  fathers 
of  the  land  are  gone  where  another  outlet  to  the 
ocean  turns  their  thoughts  from  the  place  of  their 
nativity  and  their  affections  from  the  country  of 
their  youth." 

The  New  England  States  were  alarmed  and  con- 
stantly opposed  measures  designed  for  the  upbuild- 
ing of  the  West — an  attitude  which  could  not  fail 
to  cause  friction. 

The  Distribution  of  Population.  The  following 
table  shows  the  distribution  of  population  in  the 
states  west  of  the  mountains. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  POPULATION  FROM  1790  TO  1820 


STATE 

1790 

1800 

1810 

1820 

ADMITTED 
AS  STATE 

Kentucky.  . 
Tennessee  . 
Ohio  

73,677 
35,691 

220,958 
105,602 
4S.6s^ 

406,511 
261,727 
210.760 

564,317 
422,823 

s8l,4Vl 

1792 
1796 
l8oi 

Indiana  .  .  . 

24..S2O 

147.178 

1816 

Illinois  .... 

12,282 

S5.2II 

1818 

Missouri.  .  . 

20.845 

66,586 

1821 

Michigan  .  . 

4.762 

8,896 

18-17 

Settling  the  Corn  Country  131 

This  great  movement  of  the  population  naturally 
turned  the  attention  of  the  government  toward  the 
West — its  future  and  its  vast  possibilities.  The 
trade  of  the  East  saw  the  necessity  of  connecting 
with  the  agriculture  of  the  West.  The  nation  was 
beginning  to  face  a  great  political  issue — the  provi- 
sion of  internal  improvements  to  bring  the  corn 
country  into  connection  with  the  markets  of  the 
East.  How  those  early  settlers  lived  in  the  West, 
and  how  the  demand  for  better  communication 
developed  and  was  met,  will  be  treated  in  the 
chapters  which  follow. 


CHAPTER  IX 
EARLY  LIFE  IN  THE  CORN  COUNTRY 

Primitive  Methods  of  tilling  the  Soil.  When 
.settlers  from  the  Eastern  States  began  to  struggle 
with  the  Indians  for  possession  of  the  fertile  lands 
beyond  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  the  only  plows 
in  use  were  made  of  wood,  with  sometimes  a  small 
point  of  iron  tied  on  with  rawhide  straps.  In  those 
days  agriculture  was  not  considered  a  science,  and 


Courtesy  of  John  Deere  Plow  Co. 

The  plow  of  the  first  western  settlers  was  a  pointed  piece  of  iron 
fastened  to  a  crooked  stick 

it  is  difficult  for  us  to  understand  how  the  first 
tillers  of  the  soil  in  the  East  or  the  West  were  able 
to  make  a  living  with  their  primitive  tools,  which 
did  little  more  than  scratch  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
A  few  settlers  had  hoes  made  of  iron,  but  as  a  rule 
the  only  tool  in  use  was  an  ax.  The  first  crops  were 
planted  and  cultivated  with  no  tools  but  a  crooked 
stick,  a  bent  piece  of  iron,  and  an  ax.  It  was  many 
years  after  the  Pilgrims  landed  on  the  Massachusetts 

132 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country  133 

coast  before  those  early  settlers  had  a  plow.  It  is 
said  that  Boston  was  twelve  years  old  before  the 
wooden  wedge  fitted  to  a  rough  beam  was  used,  and 
Ohio  was  about  ready  to  become  a  state  before  the 
first  iron  plow  was  patented  in  America.  Settle- 
ments had  even  reached  the  Mississippi  River,  and 
five  new  states  had  been  carved  out  of  the  Northwest 
Territory,  before  the  first  adjustable  plow  was 
invented.  Indeed,  at  that  time  it  was  commonly 
believed  that  an  iron  plow  poisoned  the  soil  and  made 
the  weeds  grow! 

Although  wheat  was  the  most  desirable  grain  for 


Courtesy  of  John  Deere  Plow  Co. 

A  homemade  plow.     With  a  primitive  tool  like  this  some  Illinois 
pioneers  produced  eighty  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre 

bread  making,  it  was  difficult  to  produce  in  a  new 
country  if  the  land  had  to  be  cleared  of  forest. 
When  the  pioneer  reached  the  new  country  he  built 
his  house  with  the  help  of  an  ax  and  an  auger,  and 
cleared  his  land  with  an  ax  and  a  wooden  hoe.  At 
first  he  had  nothing  with  which  to  cut  his  wheat 
when  it  was  ready  to  harvest.  So  he  pulled  it  up 
by  the  roots,  threshed  it  with  a  flail,  and  winnowed 
it  with  a  sheet.  Where  primitive  methods  of  tilling 


134  The  Story  of  Corn 

the  soil  were  in  use,  corn  soon  became  the  most 
important  crop.  Even  in  half -tilled  ground  in  the 
midst  of  dead  tree  stumps  and  roots,  corn  yielded  an 
abundant  crop.  In  Illinois  the  new  land  produced 
in  some  places  eighty  bushels  to  the  acre,  and  in 
Ohio  from  forty  to  sixty  bushels,  whereas  wheat 
yielded  only  from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  in  the 
best-tilled  land.  A  pioneer  Methodist  minister  of 
Tennessee  tells  the  following  story  of  Indian  corn 
in  these  early  days. 

When  Corn  was  King.  "When  the  country  had 
to  be  redeemed  from  the  Indians  and  the  forests, 
Corn  was  King.  The  farmer  who  had  plenty  of  corn 
had  both  bread  and  meat  for  himself  and  family. 
Suppose  our  fathers  had  had  to  depend  on  wheat 
for  their  bread !  It  would  have  taken  them  a  hun- 
dred years  longer  to  reach  the  Rockies.  Only 
think  of  the  pioneer  in  the  woods  depending  on  wheat 
for  bread !  Corn  will  produce  four  times  as  much  as 
wheat  per  acre,  and  requires  only  one  tenth  of  the 
seed  to  seed  it  down  and  only  one  third  of  the  time 
from  planting  till  it  can  be  used  for  food.  Wheat 
must  have  prepared  soil,  and  be  sown  in  the  fall  and 
watched  and  guarded  for  nine  months  before  it  is 
even  ready  to  harvest;  whereas  a  woman  can  take 
a  'sang  hoe'  in  April  and  with  a  quart  of  seed  plant 
a  patch  around  a  cabin  and  in  six  weeks  she  and  the 
children  can  begin  to  eat  roastin'  ears;  and  when  it 
gets  too  hard  for  that  she  can  parch  it.  She  needs 
to  gather  only  what  she  uses  for  the  day ;  for  it  will 
stand  all  winter,  well  protected  by  its  waterproof 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country  135 

shuck.  Not  so  with  wheat.  It  must  be  all  gathered 
at  once  when  ripe,  and  threshed,  cleaned,  and  gar- 
nered. And  even  then  it  is  hard  to  get  bread  out 
of  it  without  a  mill.  But  a  small  sack  of  parched 
corn  with  a  bit  of  salt  was  an  ample  supply  for 
a  ten  days'  hunt  or  a  dash  with  Jack  Sevier  after 
thieving  Indians.  Corn  was  King  when  I  was  a 
boy." 

And  so  it  was.  Corn  was  king  when  those  hardy 
pioneers  followed  Boone  into  Kentucky  and  Clark 
into  the  prairie  lands.  Corn  was  king  when  General 
Putnam  sent  the  first  body  of  old  Revolutionary 
soldiers  into  the  Ohio  Valley.  And  it  was  the  power 
of  this  king  of  foods  that  sustained  the  thousands 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  settlers  who  deserted 
the  seaboard  states  for  the  magnificent  river  valleys 
of  the  West  ^and  Northwest. 

Beginning  of  Western  Civilization.  The  first  men 
to  enter  this  western  country  were  hardy,  strong  of 
constitution,  and  of  an  adventurous  disposition 
Think  of  a  man  who  would  push  his  worldly  goods 
from  Maine  to  Pittsburgh  in  a  wheelbarrow!  We 
are  simply  amazed  at  the  thought  of  a  woman  walk- 
ing the  same  distance,  carrying  an  infant  in  her 
arms.  Yet  thousands  who  made  the  journey  under- 
went such  hardships  and  were  sustained  by  a  courage 
and  fortitude  that  made  the  conquest  of  the  forest 
a  comparatively  easy  task. 

Within  the  three  decades  from  1790  to  1820, 
nearly  two  million  people  moved  into  Kentucky. 
Tennessee,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and 


ij6  The  Story  of  Corn 

Missouri.  They  came  so  fast  that  it  was  impossible 
to  lay  out  roads;  and  to  provide  the  conveniences 
of  travel  and  commerce  so  necessary  to  the  hap- 
piness and  prosperity  of  a  new  country  was  out 
of  the  question.  The  inhabitants  could  grow  food 
in  abundance.  In  fact,  living  was  so  easy  that 
a  farmer  need  work  but  half  his  time  to  be  able 
to  supply  an  abundance  of  grain  and  meat  for  his 
family.  But  these  pioneers  were  cut  off  entirely 
from  the  older  settled  sections  in  the  East  and 
the  South. 

A  new  country,  if  it  would  prosper  rapidly,  must 
be  contiguous  to  an  older  community.  Countries 
are  like  individuals  in  this  respect;  there  must  be  a 
constant  and  easy  interchange  of  ideas,  products, 
and  population.  The  Northwest  had  all  the  natural 
advantages  for  the  forming  of  a  great  empire.  It 
was  being  populated  by  a  race  of  people  who  were 
nation  makers.  But  it  lacked  one  essential  factor  — 
easy  communication  with  the  outside  world.  The 
Appalachian  Mountains  made  it  impossible  to 
connect  the  West  with  the  East,  and  the  nearest 
center  of  trade  and  culture  in  the  South  was  New 
Orleans.  But  this  port  was  fifteen  hundred  miles 
away,  and  it  was  easier  for  New  York  or  Boston  to 
trade  with  London  than  for  Marietta  or  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  to  trade  with  New  Orleans. 

Early  Commerce.  Even  the  roads  leading  from 
settlement  to  settlement  were  nothing  more  than 
narrow  buffalo  paths  or  Indian  trails.  The  old 
military  roads  from  the  East  to  the  West  were  at 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country 


first  so  cut  up  or  so  blocked  by  falling  trees  that  it 
was  next  to  impossible  to  cross  the  mountains  with 


A  buffalo  path.     In  pioneer  days  buffalo  paths  and  Indian  trails 
were  the  only  roads  leading  from  settlement  to  settlement 

loaded  wagons.  Notwithstanding  these  difficulties, 
the  early  settlers  had  to  import  a  few  things  from 
the  outside  world ;  they  could  not  live  on  corn  alone. 
Salt  was  required  for  their  food;  iron  was  necessary 
for  their  castings;  and  there  was  always  a  demand 
for  spices,  calicoes,  and  many  household  articles. 
But  until  the  treaty  with  Spain  in  1794,  the  settlers 
could  not  even  go  down  the  Mississippi  River  to 
trade. 

After  1794  a  multitude  of  rafts,  arks,  and  barges 
floated  down  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  to  New 
Orleans.  It  was  not  so  difficult  to  float  the  products 
to  that  city,  but  it  was  slow,  hard  work  to  push 
the  boats  upstream  from  New  Orleans  to  Pittsburgh. 
In  fact,  the  round  trip  required  sometimes  twelve 
months.  Therefore,  it  was  often  more  profitable  to 
sell  the  boats  in  New  Orleans  for  old  lumber  and 


138  The  Story  of  Corn 

walk  back  home,  a  distance  of  about  fifteen  hundred 
miles,  and  have  their  necessary  supplies  sent  from 
Baltimore  and  Philadelphia  by  means  of  pack  horses. 

The  Pack  Horses.  Philadelphia  saw  early  the 
,  importance  of  trading  with  these  settlers  beyond 
the  mountains,  and  a  road  from  that  city  to  Pitts- 
burgh was  begun.  By  1 784  goods  were  being  carried 
from  Philadelphia  to  Shippensburg,  or  Hagerstown, 
Maryland,  in  Conestoga1  wagons,  and  thence  taken 
to  Pittsburgh  on  horseback.  Philadelphia  was  fast 
drawing  the  trade  of  the  West.  A  road  across 
the  mountains  was  being  opened  up  along  the  old 
trail,  over  which  settlers  were  continually  traveling. 
Numerous  inns  and  taverns  were  kept  open,  and  in 
the  busy  season  trains  of  pack  horses  were  passing 
constantly,  carrying  hides  and  furs  to  the  East  and 
bringing  in  return  salt  and  other  necessities  to  the 
West.  The  important  freight  carriers  in  the  earlier 
days  were  these  pack  horses,  which  moved  in  long 
lines,  like  caravans  of  camels  across  the  desert. 
They  have  well  been  called  the  first  industrial 
agents  between  the  East  and  the  West. 

The  earlier  settlers  collected  what  furs  and  pelts 
they  could  obtain  throughout  the  year  for  the 
purpose  of  sending  them  over  the  mountains  for 
barter.  In  the  autumn  the  settlers  brought  together 
their  goods  and  the  horses  were  equipped  for  the 
journey.  Each  horse  was  provided  with  bell, 
collar,  pack,  saddle,  and  bags.  These  bags  were 

iConestoga  wagons  were  large,  broad-wheeled  wagons,  usually  covered,  for 
travel  in  soft  soil  and  on  prairies.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  town  Con- 
estoga, Pennsylvania. 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country 


139 


filled  with  feed  for  the  horses  but  on  the  return  trip 
were  used  for  salt.  The  first  horse  in  each  group 
was  led  by  a 
driver,  and 
each  succes- 
sive horse  was 
hitched  to  the 
saddle  of  the 
one  in  front. 
When  every- 
thing was  in 
readiness,  the 

long       line       Of  Fr°m  "The  Story  of  Chicago" 

pack     horses  Loading  the  pack  horses 

started  from  the  Ohio  across  the  mountains  to 
Shippensburg  or  Hagerstown,  Maryland,  where 
they  were  to  meet  the  wagons  from  Philadelphia. 
Here  the  furs  were  exchanged  for  salt,  iron,  and  other 
merchandise.  Bars  of  iron  were  often  fastened  on 
the  backs  of  the  horses  and  then  bent  around  their 
bodies.  Each  horse  carried  in  addition  to  other 
things  two  bushels  of  alum  salt,  which  weighed 
eighty-four  pounds.  They  also  carried  back  to  the 
land  far  beyond  the  mountains  small  packages  of 
tea,  chocolate,  sugar,  pepper,  cinnamon,  cloves,  glass 
beads,  hand  mirrors,  and  the  lighter  iron  goods. 
The  caravans  that  went  from  the  markets  of  the 
East  to  the  great  Northwest  were  not  unlike  those 
that  came  from  India  to  Europe  in  the  days  when 
Venice  and  Genoa  were  carrying  on  an  extensive 
commerce  with  the  Far  East. 


140  The  Story  of  Corn 

Effect  of  this  Isolation  on  the  West.  Philadelphia 
was  over  three  hundred  miles  from  Pittsburgh,  and 
about  two  hundred  fifty  miles  from  the  nearest 
settlements  in  Virginia.  In  those  days  of  slow 
transportation  the  West  was  so  far  removed  from 
the  East  that  the  two  had  little  in  common,  save 
a  certain  racial  kinship,  and  even  this  bond  had 
little  force.  Commerce  is  the  great  bond  that 
unites  people,  and  this  bond  was  slight,  indeed,  in 
those  early  days  when  the  corn  lands  were  being 
opened  up  and  pack  horses  were  the  only  freight 
carriers. 

The  settlers  sought  earnestly  for  crops  that  could 
be  sold  abroad.  Grain  was  too  heavy  and  meat  too 
bulky  to  send  across  the  mountains  on  horseback. 
The  westerners  were  forced,  therefore,  to  adopt  a 
kind  of  agriculture  that  would  supply  not  only  their 
food  but  meet  also  their  other  needs.  As  a  result 
the  bulk  of  the  land  was  divided  into  small  farms. 
Often,  in  the  early  years,  the  entire  family  dressed 
in  deerskins,  and  later  in  sheepskins,  but  after  a  while 
flax  was  cultivated  and  the  wheel  and  the  loom 
were  to  be  found  in  every  home.  Their  isolation 
from  the  markets  of  the  world  made  it  necessary  for 
the  settlers  to  engage  in  such  manufacturing  as  would 
supply  their  most  urgent  needs.  This  gave  variety 
to  their  occupations.  The  vast  timber  lands  fur- 
nished material  for  houses,  rafts,  and  furniture,  and 
by  1798  Pittsburgh  was  engaged  in  boat  building. 
The  household  wheel  and  loom  soon  gave  place  to 
the  factory.  Small  patches  of  cotton  were  planted 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country 


141 


in  Ohio,   Indiana,   and  Illinois,   and  by   1809  Cin- 
cinnati had  a  cotton  factory.     Mills  for  grinding 


An  old  water  mill.     To  such  mills  the  settlers  brought  their  grain 
to  be  ground  into  flour  or  meal 

grain,  sawing  lumber,  and  manufacturing  furniture 
were  erected,  and  woolen  and  hemp  mills  began  to 
supply  material  for  clothing. 

The  land  produced  food  in  abundance,  but  neces- 
sity drove  a  goodly  number  of  the  population  into 


142  The  Story  of  Corn 

converting  the  raw  material  at  hand  into  articles 
suitable  for  use.  Nail  factories,  glass  factories,  and 
iron  furnaces  were  built.  The  West  was  learning 
from  hard  experience  to  become  independent  of 
the  rest  of  the  world.  But  there  was  little  money 
in  the  section,  and  people  carried  on  much  of  their 
trade  by  barter.  It  is  said  that  in  the  Wabash 
Valley,  where  the  castor-oil  bean  was  very  plentiful, 
merchants  advertised  that  they  would  accept  castor 
oil  for  debts. 

The  Source  of  Wealth.  Notwithstanding  the 
many  industries  which  sprang  up  in  the  West,  corn 
became  the  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of  this  coun- 
try. This  was  the  one  commodity  that  had  a 
market  value.  In  the  first  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  East  was  sorely  in  need  of  the  grain 
of  the  West,  as  we  have  already  seen,  and  Europe 
was  crying  in  vain  for  bread.  In  Boston  and 
Charleston  flour  rose  at  one  time  during  the  War 
of  1812  to  fourteen  dollars  a  barrel,  while  the 
grain  of  the  West  lay  rotting  in  the  fields  because 
of  the  cost  of  transportation.  To  move  a  ton 
of  grain  from  Pittsburgh  to  Philadelphia  cost  one 
hundred  dollars.  The  freight  on  a  barrel  of  flour 
across  the  country  would  have  been  about  ten 
dollars.  A  bushel  of  salt  sent  to  the  West  cost  two 
dollars  and  a  half,  and  a  hundred  pounds  of  sugar 
about  five  dollars.  Nevertheless,  the  trade  between 
the  East  and  the  West  did  develop  and  became 
enormous.  A  merchant  class  developed  in  the  West, 
and  the  demand  for  money  became  still  greater. 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country  143 

Much  of  the  land  in  the  Scioto  Valley  of  Ohio  was 
owned  by  settlers  from  Virginia  who  had  been 
accustomed  to  raising  cattle.  The  great  cost  of  ship- 
ping grain  to  the  markets  of  the  world  caused  one 
George  Renick,  who  had  a  considerable  landed 
estate  in  the  Scioto  Valley,  to  fatten  a  lot  of  cattle 
in  1804  and  drive  them  across  the  mountains  to 
Baltimore,  a  distance  of  nearly  three  hundred  miles. 
He  was  told  that  the  long  drive  would  either  kill 
the  cattle  or  so  reduce  their  flesh  that  they  would 
not  be  marketable.  As  he  was  obliged  to  have 
money  wherewith  to  procure  certain  necessities  of 
life  and  to  pay  his  taxes,  he  tried  the  experiment. 
With  careful  treatment  the  cattle  lost  less  than  a 
hundred  pounds  apiece  by  the  journey,  and  he 
found  a  ready  market  for  them.  His  success 
encouraged  others,  and  both  Philadelphia  and 
Baltimore  became  cattle  markets.  Fattening  cattle 
on  the  corn  of-  the  West  for  the  markets  of  the 
East  became  a  most  important  industry.  During 
March  and  April,  three-  or  four-year-old  cattle 
were  fed  heavily  on  corn.  They  were  then  allowed 
to  graze  all  summer;  then  for  five  or  six  months, 
were  fed  on  corn  to  give  them  solid  flesh  to  stand 
the  long  journey.  This  began  the  following  July, 
when  the  grass  along  the  way  would  supply  the 
cattle  with  food.  The  trip  of  three  hundred  miles 
across  the  mountains  took  fully  a  month.  But  at 
last  a  way  had  been  found  to  turn  the  corn  of  the 
West  into  money,  and  for  a  time  much  of  the  corn 
raised  in  the  West  was  used  in  this  way. 


144 


The  Story  of  Corn 


It  was  easier  to  drive  cattle  than  hogs  to  market, 
but  it  was  cheaper  to  raise  the  hogs.     It  took  from 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

Cattle  in  a  blue-grass  pasture.     The  rich  natural  pasture  lands  of 

the  Ohio  Valley  soon  made  the  raising  and  fattening  of 

cattle  for  the  growing  markets  of  the  East 

an  important  industry 

three  to  five  years  to  get  the  cattle  ready  for  market, 
but  pigs  could  be  fattened  within  twelve  months. 
It  required  less  skill  and  labor  to  handle  the  hogs 
but  it  was  considerably  more  difficult  to  drive  them 
such  a  great  distance.  It  was  not  unusual  to  see  a 
drove  of  five  thousand  hogs  or  three  thousand 
cattle,  accompanied  by  a  group  of  horsemen,  on  their 
way  to  Baltimore  or  Philadelphia.  Then,  too, 
great  droves  of  horses  were  raised  for  the  markets 
of  the  East,  and  it  is  said  that  immediately  following 
the  War  of  1812  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
passed  through  Cumberland  Gap  on  their  way  to 
the  cotton  fields  of  the  South. 

It  is  said  that  the  practice  of  cutting  corn  and 
stacking  it  in  the  field  was  for  the  convenience  of 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country  145 

\ 

the  cattle  raiser.  Then  the  whole  stack,  corn  and 
all,  was  fed  to  the  cattle  and  horses,  and  the  hogs 
were  turned  in  later  to  eat  the  scattered  grain. 

In  all  these  ways  the  corn  of  the  West  was  turned 
into  wealth.  Indian  corn  that  could  be  bought  in 
the  fields  for  ten  cents  a  bushel  was  at  last  bring- 
ing prosperity.  It  was  being  converted  into  cattle, 
hogs,  and  horses,  and  moved  on  foot  to  ready 
markets  in  the  East. 

Value  of  this  Trade.  This  trade  increased  the 
desire  of  the  eastern  cities  to  'open  lines  of  com- 
munication between  the  East  and  the  West.  Phila- 
delphia took  the  lead  in  constructing  turnpikes,  and 
by  1820  a  line  of  wagons  was  running  regularly 
between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh.  More  than 
three  thousand  wagons,  transporting  annually  more 
than  four  million  dollars  worth  of  merchandise, 
carried  on  a  lively  traffic  over  the  old  Lancaster 
Road.  Four,  and  sometimes  six,  horses  pulled  a 
heavy  wagon  as  it  creaked  along  the  old  rough  roads 
that  were  still  tramped  by  thousands  of  emigrants 
going  into  the  corn  country. 

In  addition  to  this  overland  trade  thousands  of 
boats,  rafts,  and  barges  floated  down  the  Ohio  and 
the  Mississippi,  carrying  barrels  of  flour  bound  for 
New  Orleans  and  for  distribution  to  settlers  along  the 
way.  Corn  could  not  be  transported  a  very  great 
distance,  since  it  molded  quickly  when  shipped  in 
bulk.  Hence  flour  was  carried  by  boat,  and  corn 
was  converted  into  animals  or  whisky. 

Floating  Stores.     New  York,   Philadelphia,   and 


146 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Baltimore  were  making  great  efforts  to  reach  this 
western  country  and  draw  trade  to  the  East.     In 


From  Mace's  "School  Hiatory" 


A  flatboat  on  the  Ohio.     The  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi  were  the  most 

important  highways  in  the  new  West.     Thousands  of  flatboats 

loaded  with  products  floated  down  them  to  New  Orleans 

the  West  no  spur  was  needed.  There  all  was  bustle 
and  hurry.  Pittsburgh  became  the  great  distribut- 
ing point,  and  at  times  several  thousand  emi- 
grants, together  with  goods  worth  several  million 
dollars,  would  collect  in  -the  city,  waiting  for  the 
Ohio  to  rise  so  that  they  might  go  down  the  river. 
Settlers  along  the  river  watched  for  the  boats  from 
Pittsburgh  to  get  news  from  the  East  and  mer- 
chandise from  Philadelphia  and  Baltimore.  These 
demands  gave  rise  to  a  new  kind  of  conveyance. 

A  large  vessel  resembling  a  dwelling  house  soon 
appeared  on  the  Ohio.  It  had  counters  and  shelves 
piled  high  with  "clothing  and  handsome  furniture 
and  kitchen  ware,  china,  crockery,  shoes,  and  every 
sort  of  article  and  utensil  of  use  in  the  household 


Early  Life  in  the  Corn  Country  147 

or  in  the  field."  As  this  large  floating  store  drifted 
down  the  Ohio,  the  owner,  whenever  it  hove  in 
sight  of  a  dwelling,  would  begin  to  blow  his  horn. 
The  settler  would  signal  him,  and  when  the  store 
was  made  fast  to  the  landing,  men,  women,  and 
children  would  hurry  to  the  river  bank  to  barter 
pork,  flour,  and  other  produce  for  such  goods  as 
they  needed  or  were  tempted  to  buy.  In  this  way 
the  floating  store  made  its  way  to  Cincinnati  and 
Louisville,  where  the  produce  was  resold  to  mer- 
chants. The  sound  of  the  river  horn  brought  joy 
to  the  settlers,  and  floating  stores  did  a  thriving 
business. 

The  National  Turnpike.  The  wagon  lines  between 
Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  were  also  reaping  a 
rich  harvest  from  the  trade  with  the  West.  New 
York,  however,  felt  the  necessity  of  diverting  the 
trade  of  the  Great  Lakes  from  Quebec  and  Mon- 
treal, and  Baltimore  began  to  look  with  envious 
eyes  on  the  success  of  Philadelphia.  The  merchant 
class  in  the  West  developed  slowly  at  first,  because 
it  was  so  difficult  to  obtain  goods  from  the  East  or 
from  New  Orleans.  The  only  way  seemed  to  be 
overland,  and  to  make  this  possible  good  roads  were 
an  absolute  necessity. 

Many  plans  for  uniting  the  two  sections  had  been 
discussed  since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution, 
but  it  was  not  until  Ohio  was  knocking  at  the  door 
for  admission  into  the  Union  that  Congress  took 
definite  action.  It  was  in  1802  that  Congress 
agreed  to  spend  a  part  of  the  net  proceeds  of  the 


148  The  Story  of  Corn 

sale  of  the  public  lands  of  Ohio  in  building  roads, 
some  of  which  were  to  lie  within  the  state  and  others 
to  join  the  Ohio  River  with  navigable  waters  empty- 
ing into  the  Atlantic.  The  first  great  national  high- 
way was  planned  to  begin  at  Cumberland  on  the 
Maryland  side  of  the  Potomac,  and,  crossing  the 
mountains,  to  touch  the  Ohio  near  Wheeling  in  the 
present  state  of  West  Virginia.  A  large  sum  of 
money  was  immediately  appropriated,  but  it  was 
not  until  1811  that  construction  began.  In  1818 
the  road  was  completed  to  Wheeling. 

This  new  road  gave  Baltimore  a  fine  opportunity 
to  reach  the  West.  It  became  the  highway  for 
cattle  and  hogs  driven  from  the  Ohio  Valley,  and 
the  market  for  bacon,  beef,  hides,  and  lard.  The 
great  turnpike  was  soon  crowded  with  wagons  carry- 
ing the  merchandise  of  the  East  to  the  West,  while 
the  heavy  produce  of  the  West,  such  as  flour,  corn, 
and  pork,  was  sent  by  boat  to  New  Orleans  and 
thence  around  the  coast  of  Florida  to  Charleston 
and  New  York.  Other  roads  to  connect  Baltimore 
and  Cumberland,  with  the  expectation  of  drawing 
much  of  the  western  trade  from  Philadelphia,  were 
at  once  begun. 

But  a  new  era  was  at  hand.  The  age  of  steam 
and  of  canal  building  was  to  form  new  commercial 
ties.  A  new  industry,  already  begun,  was  to 
make  the  corn  of  the  West  more  valuable  to  the 
world  than  was  the  cotton  of  the  South,  and  to 
make  the  northern  Mississippi  Valley  the  granary 
of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  X 

CONNECTING-THE  CORN  COUNTRY  WITH  THE  WORLD 

The  Need  of  Internal  Improvements.  During  the 
period  from  1800  to  1820  over  half  a  million  people 
moved  into  Ohio  alone,  while  nearly  three  hundred 
thousand  more  crossed  the  states  of  Ohio  and  Ken- 
tucky and  found  homes  in  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri, 
and  Michigan.  About  three  hundred  fifty  thousand 
more  moved  into  the  Southwest,  into  the  present 
states  of  Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Louisiana,  mak- 
ing a  total  of  over  a  million  people  who  in  these 
twenty  years  crossed  over  from  the  seaboard  to  the 
land  beyond  the  mountains.  This  migration  caused 
the  settlers  to  look  back  across  the  mountains  and 
ask  the  East  to  help  the  West  in  uniting  the  two 
sections. 

In  1803,  when  Ohio  became  a  state,  the  first  to 
be  carved  out  of  the  Northwest  Territory,  her  repre- 
sentatives became  at  once  active  for  better  means 
of  communication  between  the  East  and  the  West. 
In  1806  Kentucky  sent  Henry  Clay  to  the  Senate. 
He  was  then  barely  thirty  years  old,  but  he  at  once 
brought  the  attention  of  the  eastern  statesmen  to 
the  condition  and  possibilities  of  the  West.  Clay 
was  the  first  distinguished  man  to  come  from  the 
great  Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  West  was  extremely 
proud  of  him.  He  had  seen  the  toil  and  trouble 

149 


150 


The  Story  of  Corn 


which  attended  the  emigrants  from  the  East  on 
their  way  to  the  fertile  grain  fields  of  the  West,  and 

when  he  entered 
Congress  the  cry 
for  better  means 
of  communica- 
tion was  growing 
louder  and  more 
insistent.  Some 
talked  of  great 
turnpikes,  many 
discussed  the 
need  for  canals, 
from  which  Eng- 
land had  profited 
so  much,  and  still 
others  proposed 
river  and  harbor 
improvements. 
It  seemed  as  if 
everybody  was  anxious  to  build  roads,  dig  canals, 
and  improve  the  river  channels.  But  how?  The 
states  along  the  seaboard  argued  that  it  was  the 
duty  of  each  state  to  raise  money  for  its  own  inter- 
nal improvements ;  but  the  states  west  of  the  moun- 
tains wanted  Congress  to  aid  them  in  building  roads 
that  would  connect  the  East  with  the  West,  and  to 
help  bear  such  other  expenditures  as  would  improve 
trade  between  the  states. 

Political  Difficulties.     Henry  Clay  was  the  cham- 
pion of  this  policy  in  the  Senate.     In  those  days 


After  a  painting  by  Henry  Inman 

Henry  Clay,  the  first  distinguished  man 

sent  from  the  Mississippi  Valley 

to  the  United  States  Senate 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World      151 

most  statesmen  disapproved  of  Congress  spending 
any  money  on  internal  improvements,  on  the  ground 
that  such  a  policy  would  lead  to  unjust  discrimina- 
tion. It  was  argued  that  if  the  government  should 
begin  to  make  these  improvements  for  the  benefit  of 
the  several  states,  it  would  favor  those  states  that 
had  the  greatest  power  in  Congress  and  that  the 
practice  might  lead  to  the  union  of  two  or  more 
sections  for  mutual  advantage  against  other  sections. 
Therefore,  the  policy  of  internal  improvements  did 
not  at  first  make  much  headway  in  Congress.  The 
West  for  the  time  was  helpless,  unable  to  connect 
with  the  great  outside  world.  At  this  time  a  good 
turnpike  across  the  mountains,  or  the  improvement 
of  the  river  channels,  would  have  done  much  to 
improve  conditions.  But  it  was  argued  that  the 
national  government  could  not  constitutionally 
appropriate  money  for  public  improvements,  such 
as  building  roads,  digging  canals,  and  improving 
the  rivers  and  harbors.  In  the  meantime  the  West, 
cut  off  from  the  markets  of  the  world,  continued  to 
fatten  its  cattle,  hogs,  and  horses  on  its  corn  and 
drive  them  three  hundred  miles  to  market,  while 
grain  rotted  in  the  field.  Henry  Clay,  however, 
contended  that  the  national  government  did  have 
authority  to  make  internal  improvements.  When 
he  saw  that  Congress  would  not  come  to  the  aid  of 
the  West  he  predicted  that  the  nation  would  soon 
be  divided  into  three  sections,  the  North,  the  South, 
and  the  West;  and  that  each  would  eventually 
become  independent  of  the 


STATE  HOB"" 

ARTS  **0  H0«  ECU«.0**» 
CM.IFOKNIA 


152 


The  Story  of  Corn 


The  great  part  that  the  grain  fields  were  to  play 
in  the  prosperity  of  the  West  was  to  be  brought 
about  not  by  national  aid,  but  by  the  genius  and 
skill  of  one  man.  Human  ingenuity  is  greater  than 
geographical  barriers,  and  human  skill  was  at  that 
time  already  giving  to  the  world  a  series  of  inventions 
destined  to  free  the  pent-up  energy  of  the  corn 
country.  The  first  of  these  was  the  steamboat.  And 
what  could  be  more  proper  than  a  brief  study  of 

the  man  who 
made  it  possible 
for  the  products 
of  the  great  corn 
country  to  reach 
the  outside 
world? 

Robert  Fulton. 
The  inventor  of 
the  steamboat, 
Robert  Fulton, 
was  born  in  Little 
Britain,  Lan- 
caster County, 
Pennsylvania,  in 
1765.  His  father 
died  while  he  was 
quite  young  and, 
the  family  being 
poor,  Robert  was 
able  to  acquire  only  the  rudiments  of  an  education 
in  school.  His  peculiar  genius  manifested  itself  at 


After  a  painting  by  Benjamin  West 

Robert  Fulton,  builder  of  the  first  American 

steamboat.     His  invention  resulted  in 

changing  the  commercial  habits  of 

man  and  the  policy  of  nations 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World      153 

a  very  early  age,  and  he  spent  his  hours  of  recrea- 
tion in  the  shop  of  a  mechanic  or  in  the  use  of  his 
pencil,  for  he  was  both  mechanic  and  artist.  When 
he  became  of  age,  in  1786,  he  purchased  with  his 
savings  a  small  farm  in  Washington  County,  Penn- 
sylvania, where  he  settled  his  widowed  mother  while 
he  went  to  England  to  study  art.  In  1793  he  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  propelling  vessels  by  steam,  but 
it  was  not  until  seven  years  later  that  he  turned  his 
attention  seriously  to  the  construction  of  a  steam- 
boat. In  the  meantime  he  had  become  a  civil 
engineer  and  had  published  several  articles  on 
canals.  Having  obtained  patents  on  certain  canal 
improvements,  he  went  to  France  with  the  intention 
of  introducing  them  into  that  country. 

In  Paris,  in  1801,  he  met  Chancellor  Livingston, 
of  New  York,  who  had  for  some  time  been  interested 
in  steam  navigation.  The  legislature  of  New  York 
had  already  given  Mr.  Livingston  the  exclusive  right 
to  navigate  steam  vessels  on  all  the  waters  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  that  state.  After  their  meeting 
in  Paris,  the  two  men  entered  into  partnership.  In 
1803  they  built  a  boat  with  which  they  experimented 
on  the  Seine,  but  this  was  not  a  success  and  the 
French  people  took  no  further  interest  in  it.  A  few 
years  later  Fulton  left  France  and  decided  to  try 
a  new  boat  on  the  Hudson. 

The  "Clermont."  In  the  spring  of  1807  Fulton's 
first  American  steamboat,  the  Clermunt,  was  lowered 
from  the  shipyard  of  Charles  Brown,  on  the  East 
River.  The  engine  had  been  made  in  England, 


154  The  Story  of  Corn 

to  his  order,  by  James  Watt,  the  inventor  of  the 
steam  engine.  In  August  the  boat  was  completed 
and  was  ready  for  trial.  It  was  a  success.  The  first 
trip  to  Albany  is  thus  described  by  Fulton  himself: 

"My  steamboat  voyage  to  Albany  and  back  has 
turned  out  rather  more  favorably  than  I  had  cal- 
culated. The  distance  from  New  York  to  Albany 
is  150  miles.  I  ran  it  up  in  thirty-two  hours,  and 
down  in  thirty  hours.  .  .  .  The  morning  I  left 
New  York  there  were  not  perhaps  twenty  persons 
in  the  city  who  believed  the  boat  would  ever  make 
one  mile  an  hour  or  be  of  the  least  utility ;  and  while 
our  men  were  putting  off  from  the  wharf,  which  was 
crowded  with  spectators,  I  heard  a  number  of  sar- 
castic remarks.  This  is  the  way  in  which  ignorant 
men  compliment  what  they  call  philosophers  and 
projectors.  Having  employed  much  time,  money, 
and  zeal  in  accomplishing  this  work,  it  gives  me,  as 
it  will  give  you,  great  pleasure  to  see  it  answer  my 
expectations.  It  will  give  a  quick  and  cheap  con- 
veyance to  the  merchandise  on  the  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  and  other  rivers  which  are  now  laying  open 
their  treasures  to  the  enterprise  of  our  countrymen." 

Soon  after  this  successful  voyage  the  Hudson 
River  boat  was  advertised,  and  a  regular  passenger- 
boat  service  between  New  York  and  Albany  estab- 
lished. Many  who  were  engaged  at  that  time  in 
river  navigation  in  the  •  old  way  were  hostile  to 
Fulton's  boat,  and  several  attempts  were  made  to 
destroy  it.  Notwithstanding  these  hindrances  and 
the  defects  in  the  machinery,  improvements  were 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World      155 

made  from  time  to  time,  and  the  boat  continued  to 
run  as  a  packet,  always  loaded  with  passengers. 

Steamboats  on  the  Ohio.  It  was  in  1811  that  the 
first  steamboat  appeared  on  the  Ohio.  Nicholas 
J.  Roosevelt  was  authorized  by  Livingston  and 
Fulton  to  make  an  investigation  of  the  currents  of 
the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi,  and  if  in  his  opinion 
they  were  suited  to  steamboat  navigation  it  was 
agreed  to  supply  the  capital  for  the  construction  of 
the  boat.  The  report  was  favorable  and  Roosevelt 
was  commissioned  to  go  to  Pittsburgh  and  build  the 
boat.  The  little  Ohio  steamer  was  one  hundred  six- 
teen feet  long  and  cost  about  thirty-eight  thousand 
dollars.  The  people  along  the  Ohio  were  just  as 
skeptical  as  those  along  the  Hudson  had  been  when 
the  Clermont  started  on  its  maiden  trip.  Although 
they  saw  the  new  boat  move  downstream,  they  were 
sure  it  could  not  move  upstream.  The  falls  at 
Louisville  made  it  necessary  for  Roosevelt  to  wait  a 
month  for  the  river  to  rise.  Meanwhile  he  turned 
his  boat  around  and  made  it  go  upstream.  Even 
then  the  people  doubted.  In  fact,  it  looked  too 
good  to  be  true,  for  if  the  vessel  could  run  upstream 
from  New  Orleans  to  Louisville,  and  from  Louisville 
to  Pittsburgh,  the  transportation  problem  would  be 
solved.  People  thought  that  the  boat,  even  if  it 
could  run  upstream,  would  not  be  able  to  carry 
much  freight,  though  it  might  be  able  to  tow  other 
boats  or  barges  up  the  river. 

Why  the  Steamboat  was  delayed.  Although  boats 
were  soon  making  the  trip  from  New  Orleans  to 


156  The  Story  of  Corn 

Louisville  and  from  Louisville  to  Pittsburgh,  business 
did  not  prosper.  Rival  companies  sprang  up,  and 
both  these  and  the  Fulton  company  attempted  to 
control  the  navigation  of  the  more  important  streams. 
Feeling  became  very  bitter.  Moreover,  Fulton's 
company  had  secured  the  exclusive  right  from  the 
state  of  Louisiana  to  navigate  the  waters  of  that 
state,  and  this  gave  rise  to  another  perplexing 
question:  Did  the  state  have  the  right  to  control 
the  navigation  of  streams  that  flowed  through  the 
state?  If  so,  Louisiana  had  it  in  her  power  to  injure 
the  commerce  of  the  states  drained  by  the  Mississippi 
River  and  its  tributaries.  Ohio  especially  became 
alarmed,  because  all  the  produce  of  the  Northwest 
was  beginning  to  go  down  the  Mississippi.  One  of 
the  vessels  of  a  rival  company  was  seized  by  a  war- 
rant issued  at  the  request  of  the  Fulton  company 
and  a  long  lawsuit  followed.  It  was  decided  in  1818 
that  Louisiana  had  exceeded  her  power.  But  it  was 
not  until  1824  that  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  settled  the  whole  dispute  by  declaring  that 
Congress  alone  had  power  to  regulate  commerce 
between  the  states.  This  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant cases  ever  decided,  since  it  opened  the  way 
for  Congress  to  appropriate  money  for  river  improve- 
ment. To-day  the  rivers  running  through  the  states 
are  controlled  by  Congress  and  not  by  the  states,  and 
millions  of  dollars  are  spent  annually  by  Congress  for 
river  improvements. 

After    1824    the    steamboat    business   began   to 
develop  and  many  companies  were  formed  to  build 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World      157 

and  navigate  steamboats.  It  was  in  the  steam- 
boat business  thai  Cornelius  Vanderbilt  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  great  wealth  of  the  Vanderbilt 
family. 

Although  every  country  and  every  section  pros- 
pered greatly  by  this  successful  invention,  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  was  affected  probably  more  than  any 
other  section  of  the  globe.  Its  sixteen  thousand 
miles  of  navigable  water,  extending  into  every 
section  of  the  great  valley,  brought  out  the  grain 
to  the  markets  of  the  world.  It  is  said  that  by 
1840,  when  steamers  began  to  make  regular  trips 
across  the  ocean,  there  were  over  a  thousand  steam- 
boats on  the  Mississippi  and  its'  tributaries. 

Effect  of  the  Steamboat.  When  the  West  was 
first  settled  and  the  world  was  needing  its  surplus 
food,  the  fixed  policy  of  the  nation  was  that  the 
government  had  no  power-  or  authority  to  take 
money  from  the  national  treasury  for  roads,  canals, 
or  any  other  form  of  internal  improvement.  But 
the  new  invention,  the  steamboat,  so  changed  the 
commercial  habits  of  man  that  the  policy  of  the 
nation  was  changed.  The  Supreme  Court  first 
decided  that  Congress  had  the  right^  to  control 
the  navigation  of  the  streams.  This  right  carried 
with  it  the  obligation  to  make  navigation  possible; 
therefore,  Congress  had  the  authority  to  spend 
money  in  improving  national  waterways.  Hence 
it  was  easy  to  see  that  Congress  had  the  right  to 
construct  waterways,  and  soon  public  money  was 
expended  in  building  canals.  If  Congress  had  the 


158  The  Story  of  Corn 

power  to  improve  and  construct  waterways,  it  had 
the  power  to  improve  the  harbors  along  the  coast. 


Wing  dams  built  by  the  government  at  Cray  Cloud  Island  in  the 

Mississippi  River.     These  dams  make  possible  the 

navigation  of  this  part  of  the  river 

Therefore  we  have  coast  surveys,  lighthouses,  harbor 
improvements,  and  life-saving  stations  supported 
by  the  nation.  The  appropriation  of  money  for 
internal  improvements,  once  begun,  has  gone  on  at 
a  rapid  pace.  When  the  railroad  came,  Congress 
gave  land  and  appropriated  money  for  it.  National 
parks  have  also  been  secured.  At  present,  plans  are 
on  foot  for  the  construction  of  an  inland  waterway 
that  was  first  proposed  more  than  a  hundred  years 
ago. 

The  fear  of  being  shut  out  from  the  world  deter- 
mined the  policy  of  the  first  settlers  of  the  West. 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World      159 

Their  representatives  fought  in  every  Congress  for 
some  recognition  by  the  East  of  the  policy  of 
internal  improvements  at  national  expense.  But 
Henry  Clay  and  all  the  statesmen  of  the  West  could 
not  accomplish  with  their  eloquence  what  Fulton 
accomplished  with  his  steamboat.  The  little  boat 
launched  on  the  Ohio  River  in  1811  was  destined  to 
do  for  the  Northwest  what  the  cotton  gin  did  for  the 
South.  It  now  became  possible  for  the  corn  country 
to  market  its  produce  in  the  ports  of  the  world. 
From  the  day  that  little  vessel  paddled  its  way 
down  the  Ohio,  puffing,  snorting,  frightening  alike 
settlers,  Indians,  and  cattle,  until  the  present  time, 
the  products  of  the  corn  country  have  been  impor- 
tant factors  in  the  food  supply  of  the  world,  and 
have  made  the  Mississippi  Valley  the  "body  of  the 
nation"  and  the  center  of  the  nation's  wealth. 

The  Mississippi  Valley.  Let  us  examine  more 
closely  the  geography  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
Observe  the  vast  area  between  the  Appalachian 
and  the  Rocky  mountains!  The  little  streams  that 
trickle  down  the  westerly  slopes  of  southwestern  New 
York,  and  the  cool  waters  that  come  from  snow- 
capped peaks  in  Colorado,  more  than  two  thousand 
miles  apart,  meet  in  the  great  "Father  of  Waters" 
and  together  flow  down  into  the  Gulf  very  near  the 
torrid  zone.  This  is  the  most  important  river  valley 
in  the  world.  Embracing,  as  it  does,  nearly  one  half 
the  area  of  the  United  States  or  about  a  million 
and  a  quarter  square  miles,  it  exceeds  in  extent 
the  whole  of  Europe,  exclusive  of  Russia,  Norway, 


160  The  Story  of  Corn 

Sweden,  and  Germany.  The  northern  half  of  the 
valley  is  the  greatest  food-producing  country  in 
the  world,  and  the  southern  half  is  a  part  of  the 
great  cotton  country  of  the  world.  Yet  geographi- 
cally the  two  are  one.  The  coming  of  the  steamboat 
united  the  two  sections  commercially,  since  the  corn 
of  the  northern  half  of  the  valley  found  a  ready 
market  in  the  South  and  the  cotton  of  the  South 
found  many  markets  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio. 

The  Mississippi  River.  The  Mississippi  River  and 
its  tributaries  are  the  great  arteries  of  this  ' '  body  of 
the  nation,"  and  during  the  first  half  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  were  the  great  highways  of  trade  into 
the  corn  country.  Beginning  with  the  source  of 
the  Missouri,  which  lies  in  the  mountains  of  north- 
western Montana,  its  waters  flow  through  the  north 
temperate  zone  and  pass  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
after  a  course  of  about  forty-five  hundred  miles — 
a  distance  equal  to  nearly  one  fifth  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  globe.  The  Mississippi  has  about 
two  hundred  fifty  tributaries,  which  drain  an  area 
stretching  from  the  state  of  New  York  to  Idaho, 
and  from  Canada  to  the  Gulf.  This  mighty  river 
system  drains  the  fields  and  forests  of  twenty-five 
states.  It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  that  the  appear- 
ance of  the  steamboat  on  those  waters  would  make 
a  wonderful  difference  in  the  life  of  the  people. 

But  the  navigation  of  the  rivers  was  beset  with 
many  difficulties.  The  Mississippi-Missouri  is  not 
only  the  longest  river  in  the  world  but  it  is  likewise 
the  most  crooked.  The  waters  of  the  Mississippi 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  t^e  World      161 

alone  travel  from  its  source  about  three  thousand 
miles  before  they  reach  the  Gulf,  whereas  the  air- 


Copyright.  1907,  by  H.  D.  Ayer 

A  scene  along  the  Mississippi  River  near  its  source 
at  Lake  Itasca 

line  distance  is  only  about  one  thousand  three 
hundred  miles.  No  two  surveys  of  the  course  of  the 
river  made  at  different  periods  have  recorded  the 
same  length.  The  measurements  sometimes  vary 
as  much  as  two  hundred  or  three  hundred  miles. 
This  wonderful  river  has  been  known  to  cut  across 
the  country  in  a  night,  shortening  its  course  by 
thirty  miles.  It  has  swept  around  obstructions  and 
left  its  old  bed  far  inland.  It  has  played  havoc 


162 


The  Story  of  Corn 


with  boundary  lines — land  once  in  Arkansas  is  to- 
day in  Mississippi,  and  vice  versa.  It  has  made  and 
unmade  towns  along  its  banks.  It  is  said  that  a 
town  in  the  state  of  Mississippi  used  to  be  three 
miles  below  Vicksburg  as  the  river  then  ran,  but 
to-day  it  is  two  miles  above  Vicksburg  as  the  river 
now  runs.  It  has  thrown  river  towns  far  inland,  and 
villages  that  once  lay  on  its  banks  and  listened  to 
the  shrill  whistle  of  the  river  steamboats  have  dis- 
appeared, and  the  mighty  river  flows  over  the 
places  where  once  the  church  bells  called  the  people 


Levee  along  the  Mississippi.     To  prevent  the  flooding  of  the  low 

lands  in  time  of  high  water  the  banks  have  been 

strengthened  by  levees  of  earth  and  stone 

to  worship,  and  the  busy  traffic  of  streets  marked 
the  industry  of  a  thriving  river  town.     When  the 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World      163 

steamboat  came  it  found  here  about  sixteen  thousand 
miles  of  navigable  waters,  and  a  steamer  plying  its 
way  from  the  Gulf  to  the  falls  of  the  Missouri 
covered  a  distance  of  over  four  thousand  miles— 
a  distance  greater  than  that  from  New  York  to 
Constantinople.  Steamers  could  work  their  way 
into  the  heart  of  Tennessee  or  Kentucky,  run  far 
inland  in  all  the  states  north  of  the  Ohio,  almost 
touch  the  Canada  line,  and  find  their  way  to  the 
foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  No  other  such 
area  in  all  the  world  has  received  so  much  from 
the  hand  of  nature. 

Such  is  the  wonderful  valley  and  such  is  the 
mighty  river  that  had  witnessed  the  civilization  of 
the  mound  builders,  the  rude  culture  of  Hiawatha's 
tribe,  and  the  coming  of  the  buffalo.  It  was  the 
settlers  from  the  East,  however,  crossing  the  moun- 
tains by  following  the  trail  of  the  Indian  and  the 
buffalo,  who  had  the  genius  to  feel  the  promise  of 
this  great  river  basin.  The  river  valleys  of  the 
world  have  produced  the  greatest  civilizations,  and 
it  was  from  '  the  struggle  for  mastery  of  this  great 
valley  that  there  emerged  a  new  democracy  un- 
like anything  yet  seen,"  and  from  the  beginning 
of  that  conquest  to  the  present  time  all  impor- 
tant questions  of  the  nation  have  been  solved  with 
reference  to  this  great  valley. 

How  the  Great  Valley  was  unified.  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  steam,  once  fully  established  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  its  tributaries,  would  bind  together  the 
corn  country  and  the  cotton  country,  and  by  1824 


164  The'  Story  of  Corn 

this  union  had  become  a  fact.  In  1814  the  first 
steamboat  made  a  successful  trip  from  New  Orleans 
to  Louisville.  This  was  the  beginning  of  a  new  era 
in  the  West,  since  passenger  travel  was  greatly 
facilitated  and  freight  steamers  could  now  ascend 
and  descend  the  river.  The  passenger  rates  from 
Pittsburgh  to  New  Orleans,  which  had  been  sixty 
dollars,  were  gradually  reduced  to  about  one  half 
that  amount,  and  the  time  required  to  make  the 
trip,  from  four  months  to  less  than  one  third  that 
time.  Freight  rates  were  likewise  soon  reduced 
about  one  half.  In  1819  sixty  boats  /were  running 
between  New  Orleans  and  Louisville.  When  the 
Cumberland  River  was  opened,  a  line  of  boats  was 
established  between  Nashville,  Tennessee,  and  New 
Orleans.  The  Missouri  and  the  Platte  were  opened, 
and  boats  were  soon  creeping  up  to  the  foothills  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains;  the  tributaries  of  the  Ohio 
were  opened,  and  steamers  were  soon  puffing  and 
blowing  in  the  very  heart  of  the  grain  country. 

By  1815  Cincinnati  had  become  a  good  deal 
of  a  trade  center.  Corn,  wheat,  flour,  pork,  bacon, 
lard,  and  whisky,  all  products  of  the  grain  of  the 
Northwest,  were  going  down  the  Mississippi  to 
New  Orleans  and  beyond.  St.  Louis  had  estab- 
lished communication  with  Louisville,  Cincinnati, 
and  New  Orleans.  The  rapid  development  of 
steamboat  traffic  was  destroying  the  wagon  trade 
between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  and  drawing 
together  the  West  and  the  South. 

It  was  the  period  from  1820  to  1850  that  witnessed 


Connecting  the  Corn  Country  with  the  World     165 

the  great  development  of  steamboat  traffic  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  Coal  was  easily  obtained  for 
fuel,  as  there  was  an  abundance  of  it  in  the  valley. 
By  1826,  Cincinnati  had  become  the  chief  export- 
ing city  and  the  manufacturing  center  of  the  West. 
As  many  as  thirty  steamers  might  be  seen  any 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hal! 


A  Mississippi  River  steamer.     The  steamboat  bound  together  the 
corn  country  and  the  cotton  country,  making  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  an  empire  complete  within  itself 

day  at  the  docks  of  this  metropolis  of  the  valley. 
Louisville,  also,  became  a  great  exporting  center,  con- 
trolling as  it  did  the  products  of  central  Tennessee 
and  Kentucky  that  came  by  way  of  the  Cumberland 
River.  In  addition  to  steamboats,  thousands  of 
rafts,  boats,  and  barges  floated  down  the  northern 
tributaries  of  the  Mississippi.  Coming  together  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ohio,  numbers  of  these  were  lashed 


1 66  The  Story  of  Corn 

together  and  proceeded  down  the  Mississippi  to 
New  Orleans.  After  disposing  of  the  products  the 
raftsmen  worked  their  way  back  home,  sometimes 
as  deck  hands  on  the  steamers  that  carried  the 
merchandise  of  the  world  to  the  great  grain  country 
of  the  Northwest.  In  1824  three  hundred  thousand 
barrels  of  flour  went  down  the  Mississippi,  and  on 
the  return  trip  the  boats  were  loaded  with  cotton. 
The  portion  of  the  South  drained  by  the  Mississippi 
was  beginning  to  depend  upon  the  West  for  food, 
and  the  West  was  depending  upon  the  South  for 
material  for  clothing.  By  1840  three  thousand 
flatboats,  in  addition  to  the  steamboats,  annually 
ascended  the  Ohio  alone,  and  probably  as  many  more 
went  down  the  Mississippi.  Thus  it  had  come  to 
pass  that  the  great  Mississippi  Valley  was  an  empire 
complete  within  itself.  What  a  change  since  those^ 
early  pioneering  days  when  pack  horses  were  the 
chief  freight  carriers  between  the  East  and  the  West ! 


CHAPTER  XI 
AN  ERA  OF  INTERNAL  IMPROVEMENTS 

Dependence  of  the  West  upon  the  South.    If 

you  will  examine  your  maps  again,  you  will  see  that 
New  Orleans  was  the  natural  market  for  the  grain 
of  the  entire  Mississippi  Valley.  But  grain  bound 
for  Charleston  or  New  York,  the  West  Indies  or 
South  America,  England  or  the  continent  of  Europe, 
had  to  be  reloaded  at  New  Orleans.  The  grain 
country,  however,  was  developing  so  rapidly  and 
commerce  was  increasing  at  such  an  enormous  rate 
that  New  Orleans  soon  became  unable  to  handle  the 
freight.  There  were  not  enough  warehouses  in 
which  to  store  the  grain  and  not  enough  ocean-going 
vessels  to  take  it  away.  By  1825  the  market  was 
overstocked  and  traders  had  either  to  wait  in  New 
Orleans  for  prices  to  rise  or  else  leave  their  goods 
stored  in  crowded  warehouses  where  they  were 
liable  to  spoil.  Seagoing  vessels  were  unable  to 
take  the  products  away  fast  enough,  although  flour 
was  selling  in  New  York  and  Charleston  at  eight 
dollars  a  barrel,  while  in  Cincinnati  it  was  three 
dollars  and  a  half. 

New  Orleans  was  far  from  the  leading  markets  of 
the  world  and  ocean  travel  was  slow  and  uncertain, 
since  steamboats  or  steam  vessels  had  not  yet  taken 
the  place  of  the  old  sailing  vessels.  The  greater 

167 


1 68  The  Story  of  Corn 

number  of  the  Southern  States  were  raising  a  suffi- 
cient food  supply  for  their  own  consumption,  and 
there  was  little  demand  in  the  South  for  the  tremen- 
dous grain  products  of  the  West.  The  Northwest 
was  near  to  the  markets  of  the  East,  yet  the  products 
of  the  West  were  too  heavy  and  bulky  to  be  sent 
overland.  Again  and  again  the  West  looked  to 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  where  the 
demand  was  great  and  prices  high,  but  the  only 
way  the  grain  could  reach  these  cities  was  by  con- 
verting it  into  hogs,  cattle,  and  horses,  and  driving 
them  over  the  mountains. 

As  steamboat  transportation  increased  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley  the  wagon  trade  across  the  moun- 
tains declined.  But  the  great  trading  centers  of  the 
East  were  in  need  of  the  cheaper  food  that  could 
be  found  in  practically  unlimited  quantities  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley.  Such  a  demand  was  sure  to 
find  an  answer,  and  did  find  it  in  the  era  of  canal 
building  which  now  followed. 

The  Era  of  Canal  Building.  Turnpikes  were 
insufficient.  Water  transportation  was  the  cheapest, 
and  waterways  must  be  made  between  the  East 
and  the  West.  But  the  great  Appalachian  Moun- 
tains stood  a  grim  barrier,  obstructing  turnpike  and 
waterway,  while  grain  rotted  in  the  bins  of  the 
West  and  people  almost  starved  in  the  cities  of 
Europe.  Hence  the  people  of  every  state  were 
talking  canals.  New  York  was  most  fortunate  in  its 
location,  since  there  was  a  natural  trough  extending 
across  the  state  from  the  Hudson  River  to  the 


An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements  i6g 

Great  Lakes.  This  is  the  old  Hudson-Mohawk 
route,  referred  to  in  another  chapter,  and  through 
this  trough  it  is  said  the  Great  Lakes  once  emptied 
their  waters  into  the  ocean.  Governor  Clinton  of 
New  York  argued  that  a  canal  could  be  dug  without 
much  difficulty  along  this  natural  highway. 

Surveys  were  made  in  1808,  and  the  one  prac- 
ticable route  that  could  be  opened  by  canal  was 
laid  out.  On  account  of  the  War  of  1812,  how- 
ever, the  canal  was  not  begun  until  1817.  The 
nearest  route  would  have  been  from  the  Hudson 
River  to  Lake  Ontario,  but  this  would  have  made 
necessary  another  channel  around  Niagara  Falls. 
It  was,  therefore,  decided  to  build  to  Lake  Erie,  a 
distance  of  two  hundred  sixty-three  miles.  In  that 
way  New  York  might  draw  all  the  trade  from  the 
Great  Lakes  region. 

Opening  of  the  Erie  Canal.  No  event  in  the 
history  of  America  has  surpassed  in  lasting  impor- 
tance the  completion  of  the  Erie  Canal.  After 
eight  years  of  persistent  labor  the  "Big  Ditch," 
as  it  was  called,  connecting  Lake  Erie,  at  Buffalo, 
with  the  Hudson,  at  Albany,  was  finished  at  a  cost 
of  about  $20,000  a  mile,  and  on  June  26,  1825, 
the  celebration  of  the  opening  began.  A  line  of 
canal  boats  with  the  Seneca  Chief  in  front  drawn 
by  four  gray  horses  started  from  Lake  Erie  to 
the  river.  A  bear,  two  eagles,  two  fawns,  two 
Indian  boys,  and  some  fish — all  typical  of  the 
natural  products  of  the  West — were  carried  on  this 
trip.  As  the  fleet  moved  along  the  canal  it  was 


7/0  The  Story  of  Corn 

saluted  with  music,  the  cheering  of  crowds,  and  the 
firing  of  guns.  Lake  Erie  and  all  the  fertile  country 
of  the  Northwest  was  at  last  joined  with  the  markets 
of  the  East.  When  the  line  of  boats  reached  Albany 
an  escort  of  gayly  decorated  steamboats  accom- 
panied the  fleet  down  the  Hudson  to  New  York, 
where  the  entire  city,  together  with  thirty  thousand 
visitors,  turned  out  to  welcome  it.  The  Seneca 
Chief  had  brought  a  keg  of  lake  water,  which  Gover- 
nor Clinton  with  much  ceremony  poured  into  the 
ocean,  typifying  the  union  of  the  Great  Lakes  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

The  canal,  the  completion  of  which  was  celebrated 
with  so  much  ceremony  by  the  people  of  New  York, 
was  in  truth  little  more  than  a  big  ditch.  It  was 
only  four  feet  deep  and  forty  feet  wide,  and  the 
distance  from  Buffalo  to  New  York  was  two  hundred 
sixty- three  miles.  Two  years  before  the  opening 
of  the  Erie  Canal  another  canal  had  been  completed 
from  the  Hudson  to  Lake  Champlain.  The  opening 
of  these  two  waterways  was  the  beginning  of  a 
new  era  in  the  development  of  the  state  of  New  York 
and  especially  of  New  York  City.  Pent-up  trade 
broke  loose,  and  in  the  year  following  the  opening 
nearly  twenty  thousand  boats  and  rrfts  passed  West 
Troy.  The  Erie  Canal  was  a  tremendous  success 
from  the  very  beginning.  The  tolls  and  duties  of 
the  first  year  amounted  to  more  than  a  million 
dollars. 

As  section  after  section  of  this  much-needed 
waterway  was  completed  a  mania  for  internal 


An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements  171 

improvements  swept  over  the  country,  and  many 
long-discussed  projects  began  to  take  shape  one  by 
one.  The  Delaware  &  Hudson  Canal  was  begun 
in  July  of  1825  and  the  Delaware  &  Chesapeake 
Canal  was  well  under  way  at  that  time.  The 
Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal  was  about  to  be  com- 
menced, while  plans  were  on  foot  to  join  New  Haven 
with  Northampton,  Providence  with  Rochester, 
Boston  with  the  Connecticut  River,  and  Long  Island 
with  Montreal  by  way  of  the  Connecticut  River. 

The  Ohio  Canal.  In  the  year  that  New  York 
celebrated  the  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  the  farmers 
of  Ohio  became  active.  They  had  already  seen  the 
necessity  of  connecting  the  Ohio  River  with  the 
Great  Lakes  in  order  that  the  grain  of  the  interior  of 
the  state  might  be  sold  in  the  markets  of  New  York. 
The  geography  of  Ohio  was  favorable  to  canal 
building. 

The  Cuyahoga  River,  which  empties  into  the 
Great  Lakes  at  Cleveland,  and  the  Scioto  and  the 
Muskingum,  which  join  the  Ohio,  traversed  at  that 
time  the  most  thickly  settled  sections  of  the  state. 
In  1825  it  was  decided  to  connect  these  rivers  with 
a  canal,  afterwards  known  as  the  Ohio  Canal.  In 
that  same  year  the  national  government  spent 
seventy  thousand  dollars  on  the  improvement  of 
the  Ohio  River.  A  canal  was  also  in  course  of 
construction  around  the  falls  at  Louisville.  This 
was  completed  in  1830,  and  two  years  later  the 
Ohio  Canal,  three  hundred  nine  miles  in  length, 
was  opened.  At  last  the  Mississippi  Valley  was 


I  72  The  Story  of  Corn 

connected  with  New  York.  Steamboats  had  already 
appeared  on  the  Great  Lakes,  and  an  easy  com- 
munication was  now  opened  between  New  York, 
the  metropolis  of  the  East,  and  Cincinnati,  the 
metropolis  of  the  West. 

Effect  of  these  Canals  on  the  West.  It  became 
evident  at  once  that  the  system  of  canals  connecting 
the  waters  of  the  Northwest  with  the  Hudson 
River  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean  would  turn  much  of 
the  commerce  of  this  country  into  the  port  of 
New  York,  thus  making  the  Erie  Canal  one  of  the 
great  highways  of  America.  The  farmers  living 
inland  took  immediate  interest  in  these  waterways, 
which  were  far  better  than  roads  and  of  more 
service  .to  the  interior  than  were  the  rivers.  A 
farmer  could  build  a  good  strong  boat,  capable  of 
carrying  twenty-five  tons,  for  about  one  hundred 
dollars.  Into  this  he  could  put  his  corn,  flour,  and 
meat,  hitch  his  horse  to  it,  by  means  of  towlines, 
and  draw  the  whole  cargo  to  the  leading  port  of 
the  Great  Lakes. 

Sometimes  the  boats  were  drawn  by  men,  instead 
of  horses,  walking  along  the  towpath.  Sometimes 
they  were  public  carriers  and  were  supplied  with 
staterooms  and  conveniences  for  travel.  On  the 
Erie  Canal  there  was  considerable  passenger  travel. 
Here  the  boats  were  larger,  usually  about  eighty  feet 
long  by  eleven  feet  wide,  carrying  on  deck  "a  long, 
low  house  with  a  flat  roof  and  sloping  sides,  which 
were  pierced  by  a  continuous  row  of  windows 
provided  with  green  blinds  and  red  curtains." 


An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements 


173 


Frequently  the  number  of  passengers  far  exceeded 
the  number  of  berths,  and  in  such  cases  the  men 


From  Mace's  "School  History" 


In  1825  the  Erie  Canal  not  only  furnished  cheap  and  easy  means 

for  shipping  foodstuffs  from  the  West  to  the  East,  but 

was  a  popular  route  for  travelers 

usually  slept  on  the  dining  table  or  on  the  decks. 
"When  the  weather  was  fine,  the  travelers  gathered 
on  the  roof,  reading,  sewing,  talking,  and  playing 
cards,  till  the  helmsman  would  shout,  '  Bridge ! 
Bridge!'  Then  the  assembled  company  would  rush 
headlong  down  the  steps  and  into  the  cabin,  to 
come  forth  anew  when  the  bridge  had  been  passed." 
The  rate  of  travel  was  very  slow.  A  boat  the  size 
of  the  one  described  above  was  usually  drawn  by 


i  74  The  Story  of  Corn 

three  horses,  walking  one  behind  the  other,  at  the 
rate  of  about  four  miles  an  hour. 

Slow  as  this  means  of  commerce  was,  it  meant 
the  moving  of  the  products  of  the  West  to  another 
world  market — the  beginning  of  a  mighty — a 
stupendous — stream  of  trade,  the  volume  of  which 
no  one  dreamed. 

Effect  of  these  Canals  on  the  East.  The  cities  of 
the  East  were  making  vigorous  efforts  to  draw  the 
great  grain  and  meat  trade  from  the  Northwest. 
As  soon  as  the  waterway  from  New  York  to  the 
Ohio  River  was  completed,  the  grain  of  the  West 
started  for  New  York.  In  1835,  three  years  after 
the  opening  of  the  Ohio  Canal,  eighty-six  thousand 
bushels  of  wheat  were  towed  from  the  Ohio  River 
up  the  Ohio  Canal  to  Cleveland.  Here  it  was  put  on 
board  steamers  and  carried  to  Buffalo,  where  it  was 
reloaded  into  canal  boats  and  taken  to  New  York. 
In  this  same  year  1,354,995  bushels  of  wheat  and 
96,233  barrels  of  flour  went  from  the  state  of  Ohio 
to  the  East.  In  a  short  time  the  Welland  Canal 
connecting  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  opened 
other  markets  along  the  St.  Lawrence  for  the  grain 
of  the  Northwest.' 

The  growth  of  the  cities  in  the  East  made  such 
heavy  demands  upon  the  surrounding  country  that 
the  farmers  were  no  longer  able  to  supply  the 
necessary  foodstuff.  Then,  too,  by  1830,  New 
England  had  no  frontiers.  The  rocky  hillsides  were 
being  deserted  for  the  towns  or  for  the  fertile  fields 
of  the  West.  The  cost  of  living  was  growing  higher 


An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements  175 

and  higher.  But  the  opening  of  the  canals  from 
New  York  to  the  Great  Lakes  and  from  the  Great 
Lakes  to  the  Ohio  changed  this.  The  markets  of 
the  East  were  being  connected  with  the  grain  fields 
of  the  West.  No  wonder  the  people  of  New  York 
crowded  along  the  new  canal,  waving  their  hats  and 
shouting  for  joy,  when  the  first  boats  passed  by 
carrying  grain  from  the  West  to  the  East!  No 
wonder  the  Ohio  farmers  gathered  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ohio  Canal  and  poured  their  produce  into  the 
queer-shaped  boats,  hurrahing  lustily  as  the  corn 
and  meat  of  the  West  started  for  the  cities  of  the 
East!  In  1824  corn  sold  for  ten  cents  and  wheat 
for  thirty  cents  a  bushel  in  Ohio,  while  in  New  York 
the  prices  were  three  or  four  times  those  amounts. 
Soon  after  the  opening  of  these  canals,  however,  the 
prices  in  Ohio  were  doubled  and  quadrupled  while  in 
New  York  they  fell  considerably. 

Thus  new  routes  of  trade  were  opened  up,  bringing 
the  East  and  the  West  together.  The  great  corn 
country  was  at  last  opened  to  the  markets  of  the 
East.  It  is  easy  now  to  see  how  important  and  how 
necessary  the  Ohio  Valley  is  to  the  states  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast.  But  suppose  the  French  had  been 
victorious  instead  of  the  English!  Suppose  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  had  remained  the  western 
boundary  line  of  the  states  along  the  seaboard! 
How  vastly  different  would  have  been  our  history! 

Effect  of  these  Canals  on  the  Mississippi  Trade. 
The  opening  of  these  canals,  however,  did  not  affect 
the  corn  trade  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  South. 


The  Story  of  Corn 

Already  the  corn  country  had  developed  so  rapidly 
that  neither  the  river  commerce  nor  the  markets  of 
the  South  alone  could  handle  the  product.  More- 
over, the  canals  were  shallow  and  the  boats  small. 
They  could  compete  but  little  with  the  heavy 
steamers  along  the  rivers.  By  1832  Cincinnati  had 
become  the  "Queen  City  of  the  West,"  with  a 
population  of  about  twenty-five  thousand.  And  its 
growth  was  due  in  large  measure  to  the  Mississippi 
River  trade.  Great  pork-packing  establishments 
were  developed,  giving  to  Cincinnati  the  name 
"Porkopolis."  When  the  canals  were  opened  the 
river  trade  was  greater  than  the  trade  of  the 
whole  country  in  1790,  the  year  when  the  West 
was  first  opened. 

Continued  Growth  of  the  Corn  Country.  The 
invention  and  development  of  the  steamboat, 
together  with  the  improvement  of  the  streams  for 
navigation,  had  sent  the  greater  part  of  the  produce 
of  the  grain  country  into  the  cotton  country.  The 
opening  of  canals  connecting  the  Ohio  River  with 
New  York  turned  much  of  the  surplus  grain  from 
the  interior  to  eastern  ports,  and  advertised  this 
remarkable  western  country  throughout  the  Eastern 
States.  It  was  much  easier  now  for  settlers  to  reach 
the  free  lands  of  the  West.  Turnpikes  and  canals 
had  facilitated  travel  considerably,  and  a  steady 
stream  of  population  flowed  westward.  Old  Indian 
trails  had  been  widened  into  roads,  and  the  Erie 
Canal  became  a  great  highway  for  settlers  seeking 
the  West.  At  certain  seasons  of  the  year  every 


An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements 


177 


highway  leading  into  the  corn  country  was  filled 
with  prospective  settlers,  who  were  willing  to  endure 
many  hardships  in  order  to  reach  the  wonderful 
corn  country.  The  following  table  tells  the  story 
of  the  migration: 

MOVEMENT  OF  POPULATION  WESTWARD  FROM  1820  TO  1850 


STATE 

1820 

1830 

I84O 

1850 

Ohio  

58I.2Q5 

057  QCU 

I.  SI  0.4.67 

I  Q88  12Q 

Indiana  .... 
Illinois  

147,178 
55.162 

343,031 
157  4.4.5 

685,866 

4.76  1  81 

988,416 
851   4.7O 

Michigan  .  .  . 
Wisconsin  .  . 

8,765 

31,639 

212,267 

-1Q  Q4C 

397,654 
IOC    7QI 

Iowa  

4-11  12 

IQ2  214. 

Minnesota  .  . 

6  O77 

Missouri  . 
Kentucky 
Tennessee 
Alabama  . 
Mississippi 
Louisiana  .  . 
Arkansas.  .  .  . 

66,567 

564,135 
422,771 
127,901 
75,448 
152,923 

140,455 
687,917 
681,904 

309,527 
136,621 

215,739 
•«M88 

383,702 
779,824 

829,210 

590,756 
375,651 
352,411 

97.574. 

582,044 
982,405 
I,OO2,7I7 
771,623 
606,526 
517,762 
2O9.897 

Texas  

212,592 

By  1850  Ohio  had  a  larger  population  than  Massa- 
chusetts. In  fact,  its  population  was  almost  equal 
to  that  of  all  the  other  New  England  States  com- 
bined. Michigan  had  a  population  greater  than  that 
of  any  New  England  state  except  Massachusetts. 
To  a  considerable  extent  the  emigration  that  came 
from  different  sections  of  New  England  followed 
parallel  lines.  By  1840  New  England  had  prac- 
tically ceased  to  grow.  In  the  next  decade  many 
towns  and  districts  lost  heavily  in  population,  and  a 
number  of  them  have  never  recovered  from  the  loss. 

The  period  of  the  greatest  emigration  from  the 
South  was,  however,  from  1830  to  1840.  It  was 


178  The  Story  of  Corn 

even  greater  than  that  from  New  England  a  decade 
later.  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina 
remained  practically  stationary,  while  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  and  Louisiana  grew  almost  as  rapidly  as 
did  the  Northwestern  States.  No  considerable  area 
of  the  West  was  now  cut  off  from  a  market,  for  one 
could  be  reached  either  by  way  of  the  Mississippi 
to  the  Gulf  or  lower  South,  or  else  by  way  of  canals 
-and  the  Great  Lakes  to  Buffalo  and  New  York. 

Immigration  from  Europe  began  to  increase 
rapidly  after  1830,  and  it  was  especially  large  during 
the  years  1845-1850,  which  were  marked  by  famine 
in  Ireland  and  by  a  revolution  on  the  Continent. 
The  average  annual  influx  during  this  period  was 
three  hundred  .thousand.  These  were  at  first  dis- 
tributed throughout  New  York,  Massachusetts,  and 
Pennsylvania,  but  they,  too,  soon  followed  the  west- 
ern routes.  This  was  especially  true  of  the  Ger- 
mans, who  settled  in  the  country  north  of  the  Ohio. 

Westward  and  northward  flowed  this  ceaseless 
stream  of  immigrants,  across  the  Mississippi,  up 
the  Missouri,  along  the  Great  Lakes,  until  the  wave 
reached  the  Red  River,  where  the  waters  run  toward 
the  Arctic  circle.  Here  Minnesota,  the  northern- 
most of  the  great  grain  states  between  the  Missouri 
and  the  Ohio,  began  to  take  shape.  In  1850 
Minnesota  had  over  six  thousand  inhabitants. 

The  Grain  of  the  West.  The  growth  of  the 
Northwest  and  the  development  of  the  trade  in 
foodstuffs  is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  So  rapidly  did  the  settlers  open  up 


An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements  ijg 

new  lands,  and  so  fertile  were  these  virgin  fields, 
that  notwithstanding  the  improvements  made  in 
transportation  it  was  impossible  to  move  all  the 
grain  to  the  markets  of  the  world  where  it  was  so 
greatly  needed.  Corn  was  becoming  more  and  more 
valuable,  not  as  an  article  of  export  but  as  a  food  for 
cattle  and  hogs,  and  the  business  of  driving  cattle 
and  hogs  to  Baltimore  and  Philadelphia  increased 
in  volume  every  year.  During  the  financial  panics 
that  occurred  periodically  between  1820  and  1850 
the  cattle  trade  between  the  East  and  the  West 
ranked  as  one  of  the  chief  resources  of  the  West, 
always  commanding  ready  money  regardless  of 
hard  times.  By  1835  a  general  interest  in  the 
improvement  of  stock  took  hold  of  the  people  of  the 
West,  although  the  farmers  of  Kentucky  and  Ohio 
had  long  been  improving  cattle  for  breeding  purposes. 
The  cattle  trade  became  so  profitable  that  the 
ranchmen  of  Texas  drove  their  steers  more  than  a 
thousand  miles  to  Ohio,  where  they  were  fattened 
on  corn  for  the  markets  of  the  East. 

The  corn  of  the  West  was  also  turned  into  pork, 
and  the  business  of  driving  hogs  to  the  markets  of 
the  East  increased  likewise,  although  Cincinnati 
had  early  begun  to  pack  pork  for  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  As  the  raising  of  corn  was  now  rapidly 
declining  in  the  East,  the  meat  supply  also  decreased. 
At  this  period  Cincinnati  became  the  great  meat 
market  of  America  and  cargoes  of  pork  went  by 
way  of  the  canals  and  the  Great  Lakes  to  eastern 
markets.  American  pork,  however,  did  not  become 


i8o 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Copyright  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 

Texas  cattle  on  their  way  to  the  corn  country  to  be  fattened  for 
eastern  markets 

an  article  of  much  export  value  until  near  the 
middle  of  the  century.  One  reason  given  for  this 
was  that  American  packers  did  not  preserve  it 
properly  for  the  long  voyage.  Senator  Benton  of 
Missouri  said,  however,  that  the  tariff  on  salt  held 
back  the  pork  trade  for  about  three  decades.  In 
1813,  during  the  second  war  with  England,  Congress 
levied  a  tax  of  twenty  cents  a  bushel  on  alum  salt, 
which  was  continued  until  1830.  Only  alum  salt 
could  be  used  in  preparing  pork  for  foreign  trade, 
and  this  tariff  on  it  worked  a  hardship  to  the  West. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  here  that  the  fish  markets  of 
New  England  also  used  alum  salt.  But  according 
to  Senator  Benton,  Congress  paid  them  a  rebate 
which  about  equalized  this  duty,  and  indeed,  at  one 
time  practically  the  entire  duty  paid  on  this  salt 
went  to  New  England  as  a  bounty.  In  1814  this 


An  Era  of  Internal  Improvements  181 

salt  cost  about  three  dollars  a  bushel,  and  later  as 
much  as  five  dollars.  In  1832  the  tax  was  reduced, 
the  grain  of  the  West  took  another  form,  and  Cincin- 
nati taught  the  world  the  business  of  pork  packing. 

How  the  World  was  needing  the  Grain  of  the  West. 
It  is  difficult  for  us  to  appreciate  the  tremendous 
importance  of  corn  in  the  world's  history.  The 
world  could  not  depend  upon  wheat.  It  was  an 
unreliable  crop,  and  the  civilized  world  did  not 
produce  at  any  one  time  a  sufficient  quantity. 
A  wet  harvest  always  caused  a  small  crop  and  some- 
times a  famine.  As  England  depended  almost  en- 
tirely on  wheat,  the  food  question  was  ever  present 
in  Parliament.  Richard  Cobden  said  in  1841 : 
"When  I  go  down  to  the  manufacturing  districts  I 
know  that  I  shall  be  returning  to  a  gloomy  scene. 
I  know  that  starvation  is  stalking  through  the  land 
and  men  are  perishing  for  want  of  the  barest  neces- 
sities of  life  .  . '  .  .  There  are  a  thousand  homes 
in  England  at  this  moment  where  wives,  mothers; 
and  children  are  dying  of  hunger."  He  pleaded 
with  Parliament  to  take  off  the  tariff  and  let  in 
American  grain  free  of  duty. 

Russia,  Belgium,  and  Holland  had'  suspended  all 
duties  on  grain  by  1845,  but  the  famine  in  England 
continued.  It  was  especially  severe  in  Ireland.  Yet 
it  was  not  until  1846  that  the  import  tax  on  grain 
was  removed.  The  year  before  this  act  was  passed, 
Robert  Peel,  the  English  prime  minister,  bought 
Indian  corn,  amounting  in  value  to  £100,000,  in 
America,  and  shipped  it  to  Ireland.  It  was  called 


182  The  Story  of  Corn 

by  the  Irish  "Peel's  brimstone."  That  was  the 
beginning  of  the  European  trade  in  Indian  corn. 

At  last  the  nations  of  Europe  had  removed  the 
tariff  on  foodstuff  and  were  calling  for  the  grain  of 
the  West.  But  transportation  was  still  slow  and 
facilities  inadequate  to  handle  the  business.  While 
corn  and  wheat  were  rotting  in  the  fields  of  the  West, 
bread  could  not  be  bought  at  any  price  in  certain 
European  cities. 

But  another  era  was  at  hand.  An  invention  had 
given  an  impetus  to  land  transportation — the 
railroad  was  slowly  creeping  westward.  When  the 
railroad  bound  the  cities  of  the  East  to  the  grain 
fields  of  the  West,  a  new  chapter  began  in  the 
world's  history. 


CHAPTER  XII 

RAILROADS:  COMPLETING  THE  CONNECTION  OF  THE 
CORN  COUNTRY  WITH  THE  MARKETS 
•    OF  THE  EAST 

The  Problem.  The  grain  of  the  West  was  nec- 
essary not  only  to  the  welfare  of  the  East  but  also 
to  the  welfare  of  European  nations.  No  other 
section  in  all  the  world  was  producing  or  could 
produce  food  to  spare  in  such  immense  quantities, 
and  only  a  few  were  producing  enough  for  their 
own  immediate  needs.  We  have  already  seen  that 
food  was  frequently  scarce  in  New  England  and  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States ;  that  people  in  the  cities  and 
manufacturing  centers  of  Europe  were  frequently 
facing  starvation.  At  the  same  time  there  was 
more  grain  in  the  northern  Mississippi  Valley  than 
could  be  hauled  away.  It  was  evident,  therefore, 
that  the  Mississippi  River,  although  uniting  com- 
mercially the  grain  and  cotton  countries,  did  not 
give  the  best  outlet  for  the  surplus  grain. 

You  will  observe  that  the  Mississippi  River  runs 
toward  the  equator.  Therefore,  it  does  Tiot  run 
toward  the  great  markets  of  the  world.  But  direct 
trade  routes  to  the  corn  country  were  now  being 
demanded.  And  how  to  open  these  direct  trade 
lines  to  the  West  was  now  the  problem.  Canals  had 
offered  a  seeming  solution,  but  they  soon  proved  to  be 

183 


184  The  Story  of  Corn 

unequal  to  the  task.  The  one  great  barrier  to  trade 
and  to  the  world's  progress  was  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  The  strength  of  a  people,  however,  is 
measured  by  their  ability  to  overcome  geographical 
barriers.  Again  one  man  became  the  world's  bene- 
factor. A  second  great  invention  came  to  revolution- 
ize land  traffic. 

The  Coming  of  the  Railroad.  While  Fulton  was 
completing  his  first  steamboat  and  New  York  was 
surveying  the  canal  route  from  the  Hudson  River  to 
the  Great  Lakes,  a  young  engineer  employed  in  one 
of  the  coal  mines  at  Killingsworth,  England,  was 
experimenting  with  a  steam  engine.  He  was  trying 
it  out  to  see  if  it  could  be  used  to  pull  wagons  loaded 
with  coal  from  the  coal  pits  to  the  shipping  stations. 

Railways  had  long  been  in  use.  At  first  they 
consisted  of  a  rough  line  of  wooden  rails  laid  down  for 
the  easy  guidance  of  wagons  in  which  freight  was 
hauled  by  the  aid  of  horses.  Many  such  lumber 
roads  exist  to-day,  but  few  would  now  think  of 
calling  them  railways.  Yet  these  railways,  as  they 
were  called,  had  been  in  use  long  before  the  first 
colony  landed  at  Jamestown.  After  Watt  invented 
the  steam  engine,  however,  many  people  thought 
it  possible  to  construct  an  engine  that  would  pull 
these  wagons  over  the  wooden  roads.  But  it  was 
the  general  belief  that  the  rail  and  wheels  of  the 
engine  must  have  cogs,  in  order  that  the  wheels 
might  "bite"  the  rails  and  thus  get  the  necessary 
"pull."  Hence,  small  strips  of  iron  were  laid  on 
the  wooden  rails. 


Railroads  and  the  Corn  Country  185 

The  Inventor  of  the  Locomotive.  It  was  George 
Stephenson,  the  son  of  a  poor  miner,  who  gave  the 
locomotive  to  the  world.  It  was  his  genius  that 
revolutionized  land  traffic,  changed  old  lines  of 
transportation,  and  made  it  possible  for  the  remote 
districts  of  America  to  connect  easily  and  quickly 
with  the  markets  of  the  world.  It  is  fitting,  there- 
fore, to  study  this  man  and  his  wonderful  invention 
that  brought  the  East  and  the  West  so  closely 
together  and  that  made  Indian  corn  the  great 
national  grain  of  America. 

This  great  inventor  was  born  in  a  small  coal- 
mining village  near  Newcastle,  England.  His  father, 
Robert  Stephenson,  was  fireman  of  one  of  the 
pumping  engines  at 'the  mines.  George  carried  his 
father's  dinner  and  helped  his  mother  take  care  of 
his  younger  brothers  and  sisters.  His  highest 
ambition  was  to  work  with  his  father  at  the  mines, 
and  as  soon  as  he  was  large  enough  he  was  employed 
as  "picker,"  to  clear  the  coal  of  stones  and  dross. 
Within  a  short  time  he  had  become  a  fireman  like 
his  father.  At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  became  a 
master  engineer,  and  thus  passed  his  father  in  his 
profession. 

In  1804  he  went  to  live  at  Killingsworth  where 
he  acquired  his  reputation  as  an  engineer  and  where 
he  invented  the  locomotive. 

An  engine  known  as  the  Blenkensop  engine  had 
already  been  operated.  It  communicated  the  power 
to  cog  wheels  which  acted  on  cog  rails,  independent 
of  the  four  wheels  that  supported  the  engine.  This 


i86 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Copyright  by  Underwood  A  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Stephenson's  locomotive,  the  model  for  all  the  locomotives  that  have 
been  constructed,  is  still  preserved  at  Canterbury,  England 

was  in  accordance  with  the  old  ideas  concerning 
steam  railways.  Stephenson  studied  this  engine, 
and  experimented  with  it.  He  believed  that  the 
adhesion  of  the  wheels  to  the  rails  would  be  sufficient 
to  pull  the  train  without  the  cogs.  On  July  25,  1814, 
he  gave  to  the  world  his  locomotive  with  smooth 
wheels  rolling  on  smooth  rails.  It  was  a  success 


Railroads  and  the  Corn  Country  187 

from  the  beginning.  The  experiment  was  no  sooner 
made  than  the  capacity  of  his  engine  was  doubled, 
and  by  1815  he  had  so  improved  his  engine  that  it 
really  became  the  model  of  all  that  have  since  been 
constructed. 

This  wonderful  invention  had  been  in  use  at 
Killingsworth  many  years  before  it  excited  any 
interest.  Stephenson  had  no  means  of  bringing  it 
to  the  notice  of  the  public,  and  it  was  not  until  1821, 
when  a  horse-car  road  was  proposed  from  Liverpool 
to  Manchester,  that  Stephenson  came  prominently 
before  the  public.  He  was  instrumental  'in  having 
the  plans  changed  from  cog  rails  to  smooth,  and 
this  road,  completed  in  1829,  became  the  first 
important  road  in  the  world  to  operate  the  steam 
locomotive.  When  the  road  was  completed  the 
company  offered  a  prize  of  five  hundred  pounds  for 
the  best  locomotive. 

The  "Rocket."  Stephenson  in  the  meantime 
had  erected  a  locomotive  factory.  Other  engineers 
also  had  begun  the  construction  of  locomotives, 
but  it  was  Stephenson 's  "Rocket"  that  won.  The 
public  opening  of  this  important  railroad  took  place 
on  September  15,  1830.  The  Duke  of  Wellington, 
Prime  Minister,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Secretary  of 
State,  were  present.  Thousands  of  people  turned 
out  to  see  the  trains  run.  Mr.  Huskinson,  a  member 
of  Parliament,  in  attempting  to  pass  one  of  the  doors, 
stumbled  and  fell  on  the  track.  The  "Rocket" 
passed  over  him  and  he  died  that  evening.  One 
of  the  engines  conveyed  the  body  back  to  Liverpool 


i88  The  Story  of  Corn 

at  the  rate  of  thirty-six  miles  an  hour.  This  incred- 
ible speed  burst  upon  the  world  as  a  most  startling 
phenomenon.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  was  so 
frightened  that  he  would  not  ride  on  a  train  until 
years  afterwards — not  until  the  king  and  queen  had 
made  several  trips. 

The  Value  of  Stephenson's  Invention.  The  new 
road  was  a  success  from  the  beginning.  The  names 
of  George  Stephenson  and  his  son,  Robert,  who  was 
his  father's  greatest  support,  were  on  the  tongue  of 
every  one.  Their  success  was  assured.  The  coun- 
tries of  Europe  were  calling  for  their  assistance; 
America  was  calling  for  Stephenson's  locomotive. 
Mountains  were  tunneled;  seaports  were  connected 
with  remote  interiors;  swamps  and  rivers  were 
bridged;  the  "iron  horse"  was  introduced  into  every 
civilized  land.  Bread  became  cheaper,  since  it 
could  be  carried  quickly  from  country  to  country; 
while  the  corn  of  America  could  be  easily  distributed 
among  the  markets  of  the  world.  George  Stephen- 
son  made  every  civilized  land  feel  the  force  of  a 
universal  progress.  The  great  railway  systems  of 
the  world  to-day,  as  they  carry  thousands  of  people 
from  town  to  town,  as  they  transport  millions  of 
tons  of  the  world's  necessities  of  life,  pay  tribute  to 
the  genius,  skill,  and  energy  of  George  Stephenson, 
the  inventor  of  the  locomotive. 

The  Coming  of  the  Locomotive  to  America.  The 
corn  country  had  long  been  awaiting  some  mighty 
force  like  the  locomotive.  It  was  not  expected, 
however,  that  it  would  ever  compete  with  the  canal 


Railroads  and  the  Corn  Country  189 

boat  or  the  steamboat.     It  was  thought  that  the 
railway  would  serve  merely  as  a  convenient  mode  of 


The  Stourbridge  "Lion."     This  locomotive,  built  in  England 

in  1829,  was  the  first  practical  steam  locomotive 

to  run  in  America 

connecting  cities  with  waterways.  At  first  loco- 
motives were  not  expected  to  be  freight  carriers  to 
any  great  extent,  but  it  was  believed  that  they  would 
carry  chiefly  passengers  and  mail,  and  at  most  the 
lighter  freight. 

The  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal,  connecting  New 
York  with  the  corn  country,  roused  Pennsylvania 
to  action.  The  corn  and  wheat  of  the  West  were 
going  to  New  York.  In  1826,  therefore,  Pennsyl- 
vania began  her  system  of  public  works,  the  main 
feature  of  which  was  a  rail-and-water  route  between 
Philadelphia  and  the  Ohio  River.  Nothing  illus- 
trates more  forcibly  the  intense  interest  the  East 
had  in  the  corn  of  the  West  than  this  Pennsylvania 
undertaking.  It  consisted  of  a  railway  between 


i go  The  Story  of  Corn, 

Philadelphia  and  the  Susquehanna  River,  a  canal  up 
the  Susquehanna  and  Juniata  rivers  to  Hollidays- 
burg,  a  portage  railway  to  carry  the  canal  barges 
over  the  mountains  from  Hollidaysburg  to  Johns- 
town, and  a  canal  connecting  Johnstown  with 
Pittsburgh.  As  soon  as  Pennsylvania  began  this 
system  of  internal  improvements,  Maryland  also 
became  very  active  and  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Rail- 
way was  begun.  That  all  these  lines  were  working 
toward  the  great  corn  country  is  easily  seen.  In 
1828,  Charles  Carroll,  the  only  surviving  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  broke  ground  for 
a  steam  railway  from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott's  Mill, 
Maryland.  The  locomotive  that  drew  the  solitary 
wagon  on  this  road  was  built  by  Peter  Cooper, 
and  it  was  the  first  American-built  locomotive 
engine.  On  its  trial  trip  it  ran  a  race  with  a  stage- 
coach, and  there  was  great  rejoicing  when  "Tom 
Thumb,"  the  engine,  won  the  race. 

The  efforts  of  the  Eastern  States  to  connect  with 
the  West  roused  South  Carolina  and  Georgia  to 
activity.  They,  too,  began  to  look  for  a  closer 
union  with  the  Southwest.  While  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland  were  experimenting 
with  the  locomotive,  South  Carolina  was  engaged  in 
building  a  railroad  from  Charleston  to  Hamburg  on 
the  Savannah  River. 

While  Stephenson  was  experimenting  with  his 
engine  in  England  wooden  railways  were  being  built 
in  America.  When  the  Baltimore  &vOhio  road  was 
first  opened  in  America,  horse  cars  were  used.  But 


Railroads  and  the  Corn  Country  IQI 

the  carriages  moved  so  easily  on  these  smooth  rails 
that  two  dogs  harnessed  to  one  carriage  containing 
six  persons  trotted  away  with  much  ease.  Another 
carriage  fitted  out 'with  sails  moved  along  the  road, 
to  the  amusement  of  the  spectators.  Every  road 
was  making  experiments,  and  many  kinds  of  motive 
power  were  tried.  However,  the  success  of  the 
Liverpool- Man  Chester  Road  of  England,  in  1830, 
when  Stephenson's  "Rocket"  made  its  successful 
trip,  impressed  the  world  with  the  fact  that  a  revolu- 
tion in  transportation  was  at  hand.  In  the  same 
year  the  second  American-built  locomotive,  "The 
Best  Friend,"  was  put  to  work  on  the  South  Carolina 
road.  The  following  year  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio 
Company  offered  a  prize  of  four  thousand  dollars 
for  an  American  engine.  The  prize  was  won  by  the 
"York,"  built  by  Messrs.  Davis  and  Gartner  of 
York,  Pennsylvania.  In  1832  Matthias  W.  Bald- 
win built  his  engine,  "Old  Ironsides,"  modeled  after 
Stephenson's  engine.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  American  locomotive. 

The  Railroad  starts  toward  the  Corn  Country. 
After  the  appearance  of  t^he  locomotive  the  one 
dream  of  the  eastern  markets  was  to  extend  the 
railroad  into  the  corn  country.  Maryland,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  New  York  were  competing  for  the 
corn  of  the  West,  and  other  leading  lines  were 
started  westward. 

The  great  panic  of  1837  checked  canal  building; 
in  fact,  the  railway  was  beginning  to  prove  a  serious 
competitor  of  the  canals  for  the  trade  of  the  West. 


102 


The  Story  of  Corn 


As  the  country  recovered  from  the  financial  disturb- 
ances the  renewed  activity  in  internal  improvements 
was  spent  in  building  railroads,  and  the  importance 
of  the  canal  began  to  decline. 

The*  locomotive  in  the  meantime  was  slowly 
creeping  toward  the  West.  The  railways  were  like 
strong  iron  arms  held  out  by  the  cities  of  the  East 
to  the  cornfields  of  the  West.  By  1842  Albany  was 
connected  with  Buffalo.  Nine  years  later  (1851) 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Ball 

Corn  and  alfalfa  in  the  Fox  River  Valley,  Illinois,  the  heart  of  the 

vast  corn  country  that  for  more  than  half  a  century 

has  been  the  granary  of  the  world 

the  New  York  Road  had  reached  Dunkirk  on  Lake 
Erie.  When  the  first  wagon  train  was  started 
between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh,  Baltimore 
saw  the  tremendous  value  of  the  trade  with  the 
grain  country,  and  almost  as  soon  as  the  Stephenson 
engine  was  given  to  the  world  Maryland,  and 
Baltimore  especially,  became  very  active.  In  1853 
the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railway  connected  Baltimore 
with  the  Ohio  River.  The  very  heart  of  the  corn 
country  was  at  last  reached.  It  is  interesting  to 


IQ4  The  Story  of  Corn 

note  here  that  the  railroads  in  crossing  the  moun- 
tains always  followed  the  old  Indian  trails.1 

The  Effect  of  the  Railway.  George  Stephenson's 
wonderful  invention  was  the  beginning  of  a  new 
chapter  in  the  world's  history  and  a  mighty  era 
in  the  world's  progress.  By  it  the  great  distance 
between  the  East  and  the  West  was  overcome,  and 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  no  longer  stood  as  a 
barrier  between  the  grain  fields  of  America  and  the 
markets  of  the  world.  The  railroad  drew  the  trade 
from  the  Mississippi  River  and  broke  the  union  of 
the  West  and  the  South.  To-day  the  great  highways 
of  commerce  run  east  and  west.  As  the  railroad 
pushed  into  tjie  far  Northwest  a  new  industrial 
center  developed,  and  the  pork-packing  business 
was  moved  from  Cincinnati  to  Chicago.  New 
Orleans  ceased  to  be  the  leading  distributing  point  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  and  Chicago,  the  result  of  the 
union  of  the  railroad  and  the  grain  fields  of  the  West, 
has  become  one  of  the  greatest  cities  in  the  world. 

Before  the  railroad  entered  the  West,  corn  formed 
only  a  small  part  of  the  foreign  trade  of  America. 
It  had  been  difficult  to  ship  corn  to  any  great  distance 
because  it  molded  so  rapidly  when  stored  in  large 
quantities.  This  grain,  so  important  to  the  early 
settlers  and  so  valuable  as  a  food  for  cattle,  hogs,  and' 

1  The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  miles  of  railroad  built  in  each  decade 
from  1820  to  1900: 


YEAR 

MILES 

YEAR 

MILES 

1830 
1840 
1850 

i860 

23 

2,818 

9,021 

30,626 

1870 
1880 
1890 
1900 

52.922 
93.296 
166,703 
194,262 

Railroads  and  the  Corn  Country  195 

horses,  was  necessarily  consumed  on  the  farm,  and 
a  surplus  crop  was  practically  a  waste.  Our  early 
reports  on  trade  and  commerce  had  little  to  say  of 
this  grain  that  has  become  so  important  to  the 
welfare  of  the  nation  to-day.  Before  the  railroad 
entered  the  West  the  chief  value  of  corn  was  in 
supplying  a  primary  and  very  necessary  food  for 
man  until  the  land  would  produce  wheat.  Then  it 
became  of  secondary  importance  as  a  food  for  man, 


Photograph  by  Win.  Baylia 

A  modern  freight  carrier.     Through  the  development  of  the  locomotive 

corn  became  the  national  grain  of  America  and  an 

important  part  of  our  foreign  trade 

although  still  of  primary  importance  as  a  food  for 
stock.  We  have  already  seen  how  the  trade  in  live 
stock  added  materially  to  the  wealth  of  the  West. 

After  the  coming  of  the  railroad,  however,  large 
quantities  of  corn  could  be  moved  quickly,  and 
hogs  and  cattle  could  be  shipped  with  but  little  loss 
of  weight.  Such  great  quantities  of  corn  and  meat 
were  shipped  from  the  West  that  the  East  almost 
ceased  to  grow  its  foodstuffs  and  relied  chiefly  upon 


ig6  The  Story  of  Corn 

the  western  farmer  for  food.  The  corn  of  the 
Indians  now  became  the  great  national  grain  of 
America,  and  for  a  time  contributed  more  to  the 
wealth  of  this  country  than  did  all  the  cotton  of  the 
South,  and  all  other  cereals  combined.  For  more 
than  half  a  century  the  West  has  been  the  granary 
of  the  world.  From  the  time  that  John  Smith's 
Virginia  colony  was  saved  from  starvation  by  this 
grain,  until  the  coming  of  the  railroad,  it  formed  the 
chief  food  of  all  settlers  as  they  opened  up  new 
lands  and  "extended"  the  western  boundaries  of 
the  nation.  After  the  coming  of  the  railroad, 
Indian  corn  entered  into  the  commerce  of  the  world 
and  became  the  most  important  cereal  of  America. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  GRANARY  OF  THE  WORLD 

A  New  Era.  Many  changes  have  taken  place  in 
the  world's  history,  and  especially  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  United  States,  since  the  railroads  of 
the  East  entered  the  great  corn  country.  So  great 
have  been  the  changes  that  hardly  a  man  lives  to-day 
as  did  our  grandfathers  in  the  days  of  the  old  stage- 
coach, when  our  grandmothers  cooked  in  the  open 
fireplace,  covered  up  the  live  coals  at  night  for  fear 
of  losing  the  fire,  and  read  or  sewed  by  the  light  of 
the  tallow  candle.  Cook  stoves  had  not  yet  come 
into  common  use;  the  friction  match  was  rarely 
seen;  the  kerosene  lamp,  to  say  nothing  of  electric 
lights,  was  entirely  unknown.  Manners,  customs, 
and  habits  of  living  have  all  changed  since  then. 
But  the  changes  in  our  political  and  industrial  life 
have  been  equally  great. 

Before  the  railroad  entered  the  West  the  destiny 
of  the  corn  country  was  linked  with  that  of  the 
cotton  country  of  the  South.  In  those  days  com- 
merce followed  the  rivers,  and  the  mighty  Mississippi 
was  the  greatest  highway  of  trade  in  America. 
But  when  the  railroads  from  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Baltimore  pushed  across  the  mountains  into 
the  Ohio  Valley  the  interests  of  the  corn  country 
were  turned  away  from  the  South.  Henceforth  all 

197 


ip8  The  Story  of  Corn 

great  questions  concerning  the  welfare  of  the  nation 
were  decided  by  the  East  and  the  West,  while  the 
South  was  left  to  itself.  ,  Slavery,  the  tariff,  internal 
improvements,  and  the  distribution  of  the  free 
public  lands  were  very  important  questions  when 
the  locomotive  made  its  first  trip  across  the  moun- 
tains. As  long  as  the  interests  of  the  corn  country 
and  the  cotton  country  were  the  same  commercially 
the  two  sections  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  remained 
united  politically.  But  when  the  corn  country 
became  united  commercially  with  the  business 
centers  of  the  East,  the  South,  with  its  institution 
of  slavery,  was  too  much  isolated  to  remain  a  factor 
in  the  further  development  of  the  nation.  The 
cotton  states  withdrew  from  the  Union,  and  Civil 
War  followed. 

The  Movement  Westward.  Although  this  war 
broke  the  South,  it  interfered  but  little  with  the 
marvelous  growth  of  the  corn  country.  The  table 
in  Chapter  XI  shows  the  westward  movement  of 
population  to  1850.  We  have  followed  migration 
across  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  We  have  seen 
this  great  tide  of  homeseekers  cross  over  the  Missis- 
sippi into  the  rich  river  valley  of  the  Missouri  and 
into  the  prairie  lands  of  Iowa.  We  then  saw  this 
tide  turn  northward  into  Minnesota.  We  have 
seen  great-  numbers  of  Irish  and  Germans  flee  from 
the  famines  and  wars  of  the  Old  World  and  join 
the  immigrant  trains  leading  into  the  far  Northwest. 
The  object  was  always  the  same — possession  of  the 
rich  corn-producing  land — and  not  even  the  Civil 


The  Granary  of  the  World 


199 


War  could  break  the  charm  of  the  waving  corn  fields 
for  the  distressed  of  the  East  and  the  multitudes 
that  came  to  our  shores. 

The  coming  of  the  railroad  so  facilitated  travel 
westward  that  the  stream  of  settlers  bound  for  the 
rich  lands  of  the  great  West  increased  in  volume  even 
during  the  years  from  1860  to  1870,  while  the  great 
Civil  War  was  in  progress.  Notice  the  following 
table : 

POPULATION  IN  THE  CORN  COUNTRY  FROM  1850  TO  1870 


STATE 

1850 

i860 

1870 

Ohio  ;.„•.. 

1,980,329 

2,339,511 

2,665,260 

Indiana  

988,416 

1,350,428 

1,680.637 

Illinois  

851,470 

1,711,951 

2,539,891 

Michigan  

397,654 

749,11'* 

I,l84,O5Q 

Wisconsin  

315,391 

775,881 

I,O54.,67O 

Iowa  . 

192,214 

674,913 

I,  I94.O2O 

Minnesota  

6,077 

172,023 

439,706 

Kansas  

107,206 

364,399 

Nebraska  

28,841 

122,993 

Minnesota,  in  1850,  had  only  about  six  thousand 
inhabitants,  but  in  1860  the  number  had  increased 
to  more  than  one  hundred  seventy  thousand,  and 
ten  years  later  it  was  not  far  from  half  a  million. 
Kansas,  in  1860,  had  only  about  one  hundred  thou- 
sand settlers,  but  ten  years  later  it  had  more  than 
three  hundred  fifty  thousand.  Nebraska,  in  1860, 
had  less  than  thirty  thousand  people,  but  ten  years 
later  the  number  had  increased  to  nearly  one 
hundred  twenty-five  thousand.  Up  the  Missouri 
and  the  Platte  went  the  homeseekers  of  the  world, 
until  the  western  limits  of  the  prairie  lands  were 
reached,  and  the  great  grassy  plains  of  the  land 


200 


The  Story  of  Corn 


of  little  rain  presented  a  new  soil  and  a  new  climate. 
The  Limits  of  the  Corn  Country.  West  of  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  are  the  plains  of  little  rain.  This  is 
the  land  of  cowboys  and  cattle  ranches.  When 
the  first  settlers  reached  these  big,  grassy  plains 
many  of  them  turned  northward,  always  following 
the  rich  river  valleys  and  fertile  lands  that  promised 
an  abundance  of  grain.  On  into  the  Dakotas 
they  went,  until  they  reached  the  Canada  line. 


DATE 


APPROXIMATE  LOCATION 


WESTWARD 
MOVEMKNT 
IN  MILES 


1790. 
1800. 
1810. 
1820. 
1830. 
1840. 
1850. 
1860. 
1870. 
1880. 
1890. 
1900. 
1910. 


23  miles  east  of  Baltimore,  Md 

18  miles  west  of  Baltimore,  Md 

40  miles  northwest  by  west  of  Washington,  D.C. 
16  miles  north  of  Woodstock,  Va 

19  miles  west- southwest  of  Moorefield,  W.Va. .  . 

1 6  miles  south  of  Clarksburg,.  W.Va 

23  miles  southeast  of  Parkersburg,  W.Va 

20  miles  south  of  Chillicothe,  Ohio 

48  miles  east  by  north  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

8  miles  west  by  south  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio 

20  miles  east  of  Columbus,  Ind 

6  miles  southeast  of  Columbus,  Ind 

In  the  city  of  Bloomington,  Ind 


36 
50 
39 

55 
55 
81 
42 
57 
48 

14 
39 


Notice  in  the  table  above  how  the  center  of 
population  has  moved  westward  since  the  beginning 
of  the  westward  migration. 

The  last  large  section  of  the  prairie  to  be  opened 
to  settlers  was  Oklahoma  Territory.  This  was 
originally  a  part  of  the  old  Indian  Territory,  set 
apart  for  the  use  of  the  Indians  who  had  been 
driven  from  the  lands  east  of  the  Mississippi.  There 
was  a  strong  demand  for  this  land,  as  it  was  very 
fertile  and  easily  cultivated.  The  national  govern- 


201 


ment  announced  that  on  April  22,  1889,  the  Territory 
of  Oklahoma  would  be  thrown  open  to  settlers. 


Herding  cattle  in  Montana.      Beyond  the  western  limit  of  the  corn 

country  the  settlers  turned  to  stock  raising,  and  great  herds 

were  pastured  on  the  dry  grassy  plains  and  then  driven 

to  the  corn  states  to  be  fattened  for  market 

No  one  was  allowed  to  enter  until  noon  of  the  day 
advertised.  As  the  day  approached,  thousands  of 
homeseekers,  many  with  their  wives  and  children, 
crowded  along  the  boundary  line  and  waited 
eagerly  for  the  signal  to  enter.  On  the  day  set, 
exactly  at  the  noon  hour,  the  signal  was  given;  and 
before  sundown  fifty  thousand  settlers  had  entered 
the  new  territory  and  staked  their  claims.  Guthrie, 
the  first  capital,  was  built  in  a  day,  with  ten  thousand 
inhabitants.  That  was  probably  the  most  remark- 
able rush  for  new  land  by  enlightened  people  that 
the  world  has  ever  'seen.  But  Oklahoma  is  the 
last  of  the  great  prairie  states,  and  all  the  landof 

l_»8RARV 

KMM.  SCMOUl 
MA1UAI  ARTS  AND  HUME 


202 


The  Story  of  Corn 


the  corn  country  is  now  taken  up;  indeed,  some 
of  the  states  that  received  such  large  numbers  of 
settlers  only  a  few  decades  ago  have  even  ceased 
to  grow,  as  the  table  given  below  shows.  Notice 
especially  the  state  of  Iowa.  Other  states  have  lost 
in  population  in  the  farming  districts,  though  the 
cities  have  grown  considerably. 

POPULATION  IN  THE  CORN  COUNTRY  FROM  1880  TO  1910 


STATE 

1880 

1890 

1900 

1910 

Ohio  

3,198,062 

3,672,329 

4,157,545 

4,767,121 

Indiana  

1.078,  101 

2.IQ2.4O4 

2,516,462 

2,700,876 

Illinois  

1.077,871 

•;,826,^si 

4,82  1,  s  so 

5,638,591 

Michigan  

I.6^6.Q17 

2,093,890 

2.420,082 

2,810,173 

Wisconsin  
Minnesota  

1,315,497 
780,773 

1,693,330 
1,310,283 

2,069,042 
1,751,394 

2,333,860 

2,075,708 

Iowa  

1.624,615 

1,912,297 

2,231,853 

2,224,771 

Nebraska  

4S2.4O2 

1,062,656 

1,066,300 

1,192,214 

Kansas  

QQ6,OQ6 

1,428,108 

1.  47O.4Q  S 

1  ,600,049 

North  Dakota.  .    . 

100.08-; 

110,146 

577.OS6 

South  Dakota  

•148,600 

401,570 

583,888 

Oklahoma  

258,657 

790,391 

1,657,155 

Tennessee  
Kentucky  

1,542,359 
1,648,690 

1,767,518 
1,858,635 

2,020,616 

.2,147,174 

2,184,789 
2,289,905 

Prosperity  of  the  Corn  Country.  When  the  census 
was  taken  in  1910  over  thirty  million  people  were 
living  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley.  This  wonder- 
fully fertile  region  produced  such  tremendous  quan- 
tities of  foodstuff  that  great  commercial  centers 
were  needed  to  distribute  the  grain  and  its  products 
to  the  Eastern  States  and  to  the  countries  of  Europe. 
Large  cities  sprang  up  as  if  by  magic.  The  wheat, 
corn,  hogs,  and  cattle,  and  the  natural  products  of 
the  forests  and  the  mines,  had  to  be  prepared  for 
the  markets  of  the  world.  Therefore  such  industries 
as  flour  mills,  packing  houses,  grain  elevators,  and  a 


The  Granary  of  the  World 


203 


I  I  Under  2  per  square  mill 
Kiifei  1  to  b  per  square  mile 
VW/A  b  to  45  per  square  mile 
4j  to  oo  per  square  mile 
go  per  sq  mile  and  over 
Center  of  population 


The  distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States  at  the  beginning 
of  the  twentieth  century 

variety  of  manufacturing  industries  soon  increased 
the  wealth  of  the  country,  and  continued  to  draw 
settlers  from  every  section  of  the  civilized  world. 
In  fact,  these  manufacturing  centers  have  drawn  so 
heavily  from  the  rural  districts  that  the  population 
engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  has  decreased  in 
some  of  the  states. 

As  the  railroad  moved  farther  and  farther  west- 
ward it  had  the  tendency  to  carry  the  prices  of  the 
East  and  of  Europe  to  the  fields  of  the  West.  Com- 
pare the  prices  at  Cincinnati  in  1826  and  in  1860: 


PRODUCT 

PRICE  IN  1826 

PRICE  IN  1860 

Flour  

$3.00  a  barrel 

$5.60  a  barrel 

Corn  

.12  a  bushel 

.48  a  bushel 

Hogs  

2.00  a  cwt. 

6.20  a  cwt. 

Lard  

.05  a  pound 

.11  a  pound 

The  railroad  not  only  made  it  profitable  to  raise 
wheat,  corn,  hogs,  and  cattle,  but  as  these  articles 


204  The  Story  of  Corn 

rose  in  value  the  land  also  increased  in  value. 
Public  lands  in  Illinois  that  the  government  had 
not  been  able  to  dispose  of  for  one  dollar  and  a 
quarter  an  acre  became  at  once  very  valuable,  and 
in  1860  the  same  lands  were  selling  for  eleven 
dollars  and  fifteen  dollars  an  acre. 

The  railroad,  however,  was  not  the  only  agency 
that  carried  prosperity  to  the  Northwest.  The 
steamboats  on  the  Mississippi  and  the  inland  canals 
contributed  their  part  likewise.  But  the  Great  Lakes 
had  the  greatest  influence  of  all  the  water  routes  on 
the  building  of  the  West.  The  steamboat  appeared 
on  the  lakes  before  the  railroad  had  penetrated  the 
heart  of  the  West,  and  the  lake  route  has  always  been 
the  cheaper  route.  For  over  half  a  century  there  has 
been  strong  competition  between  the  railroad  and 
the  steamboat  for  the  trade  of  the  West,  and  this 
has  lowered  transportation  rates  more  and  more. 

In  1820,  before  the  days  of  the  canal  or  railroad, 
it  cost  two  dollars  to  send  a  bushel  of  wheat  or  corn 
from  Buffalo  to  New  York.  In  1840,  however, 
when  the  Erie  Canal  was  the  great  carrier,  it  cost 
about  seventeen  cents  a  bushel.  It  is  easy,  there- 
fore, to  see  the  advantage  of  the  canal.  In  1900, 
after  the  railroad  had  entered  into  competition  with 
the  canal  boats,  the  rate  per  bushel  between  Buffalo 
and  New  York  had  fallen  to  less  than  two  cents. 
At  that  time  a  bushel  of  wheat  or  corn  could  be 
moved  from  Chicago  to  New  York  for  less  than  five 
cents.  It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  how  the  West 
would  profit  greatly  by  this  competition. 


The  Granary  of  the  World  205 

The  prosperity  of  the  corn  country  finds  its  most 
characteristic  expression,  however,  especially  in  the 
growth  of  one  city  that  is  distinctly  the  product  of 
the  corn  of  the  Northwest. 

How  Grain  made  Chicago.  Study  a  map  of 
the  Northwest  and  notice  particularly  the  location 
of  Chicago.  In  1812  the  site  upon  which  this 


From  a  painting  by  Laurence  C.  Earle 

Chicago  River  near  Wolf  Point,  1833.     Chicago  then  consisted  of 

a  few  rude  houses  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  in  a  marshy 

region  known  to  the  Indians  as  "Wild  Onion  Place" 

mighty  city  stands  to-day  was  a  marsh  containing 
only  the  ruins  of  an  abandoned  fort.  The  Indians 
spoke  of  it  as  "Wild  Onion  Place."  Not  until  1833 
did  it  become  even  a  town.  What  is  now  the  chief 
business  section  of  Chicago  was  then  a  pasture,  and 
all  the  mail  received  into  the  little  village  was 
deposited  in  a  drygoods  box  which  served  as  a  post 
office.  With  the  appearance  of  the  steamboat  on 
the  lakes  a  profitable  trade  developed,  and  in  1840 


206 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Chicago  had  a  population  of  4,479.  It  is  said  that 
hogs  were  so  numerous  in  and  around  the  town  at 
that  time  that  they  wandered  at  will  through  the 
streets  and  at  last  became  such  a  nuisance  to  the 
inhabitants  that  in  1843  an  act  was  passed  depriving 
them  of  the  freedom  of  the  city. 

The  cornfields  were  steadily  drawing  the  population 
westward  into  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 


Photograph  by  Frank  M.  Hallenbeck.  Chicago 

A  busy  corner,  Chicago.     In  /5jj  this  section  was  a  pasture  and 

as  late  as  1843  hogs  wandered  at  will  through  the 

streets  of  the  village 

The  Illinois  &  Michigan  Canal,  connecting  Chicago 
with  the  Mississippi  River,  was  completed  in  1848 
and  the  cornfields  of  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley 
were  connected  with  the  lake  ports.  Four  years  later 


The  Granary  of  the  World  207 

the  railroad  entered  the  city.  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  Chicago's  wonderful  development;  and  com- 
manding as  it  does  the  greater  part  of  the  trade  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  Valley,  it  soon  became  the  greatest 
food  market  in  the  world.  At  that  time,  1852,  the 
population  was  hardly  thirty  thousand,  but  in  1870 
it  had  increased  to  over  three  hundred  thousand. 

Consult  your  geography  again  -and  you  will 
observe  that  Chicago's  location  gives  it  a  con- 
siderable advantage  over  Cincinnati.  The  new 
corn  lands  opened  up  after  1840  found  a  market  at 
Chicago.  Vast  areas  were  opened,  railroads  were 
built,  and  the  grain  and  pork  of  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi Valley  poured  into  Chicago.  By  1860  the 
trade  of  the  grain  country  was  turning  away  from 
the  Mississippi  Valley  toward  the  lakes,  and  New 
Orleans  had  ceased  to  control  even  a  large  part  of 
the  grain  of  this  valley.  By  1870  Chicago  had 
become  the  food  center  of  the  world. 

CHICAGO'S  REPORTS  IN  WHEAT  AND  CORN 


YEAR 

WHEAT  AND  FLOUR 
JN  BUSHELS 

CORN 
IN  BUSHELS 

1840 

IO  OOO 

1845.... 
1848  
1853:... 
I856.... 
1861.... 

1,024,620 
2,386,000 
1,680,998 
9,419,365 

23,885,553 

67,315 
550,460 
2,780,253 
11,129,668 
24,372,725 

Corn  did  not  enter  the  world's  commerce  to  any 
great  extent  until  after  the  rise  of  Chicago.  The 
table  above  shows  the  wonderful  rapidity  with 
which  corn  rose  to  a  place  of  importance  in  the 
world's  markets. 


208  The  Story  of  Corn 

Relation  of  Corn  to  the  Live-Stock  Industry. 
When  John  McKenzie  of  Ohio  sent  his  first  drove  of 
cattle  on  foot  across  the  mountains  to  Baltimore 
he  started  a  business  that  has  grown  in  importance 
until  to-day  the  trade  in  meats  is  second  only  to  that 
in  breadstuffs.  Great  cornfields  make  it  possible  to 
produce  large  quantities  of  live  stock,  and  when 
the  corn  of  the  West  was  rotting  in  the  fields  for  lack 
of  transportation,  hogs  were  so  plentiful  that  they 
became  a  nuisance  in  the  streets  of  Chicago.  The 
world  needed  the  beef  and  pork  of  the  West,  but 
there  was  no  quick  way  to  get  them  to  the  markets. 
It  could  not  be  foreseen  at  that  time  that  within 
less  than  half  a  century  Chicago  would  become  the 
greatest  meat  center  in  the  world,  that  the  pork- 
packing  industry  would  move  from  Cincinnati  to 
Chicago  and  become  the  leading  industry  of  that 
city,  and  that  Europe  would  buy  millions  of  pounds 
of  meat  annually  from  Chicago  packers. 

In  the  fifties  there  were  a  half  dozen  stock  yards 
located  in  various  sections  of  Chicago,  but  at  that 
time  Cincinnati  was  still  the  center  of  the  meat- 
packing industry.  There  was  little  demand  then 
for  the  cattle  and  hogs  received  at  the  Chicago 
yards,  and  the  stock  was  pastured  in  the  surrounding 
prairie  until  there  was  a  call  for  it.  In  1865  all 
the  stock  yards  were  consolidated,  and  the  hogs  and 
cattle  that  once  roamed  around  in  that  "Onion 
Town"  and  tormented  the  community  now  became 
part  of  a  mighty  business.  To-day  meat  packing 
is  the  greatest  industry  of  Chicago.  From  two 


The  Granary  of  the  World 


209 


thirds  to  four  fifths  of  the  cattle  and  hogs  received 
in  the  Chicago  yards  are  killed  and  sent  out  in 


A  view  of  the  cattle  pens  at  the  Chicago  stock  yards,  -where  two 

million  cattle  and  eight  million  hogs  are  gathered 

annually  for  slaughter 

various  forms  of  prepared  meats  and  by-products 
(lard,  fertilizer,  glue,  butterine,  soap,  and  candles). 
The  number  of  hogs  packed  yearly  is  about  eight 
million,  and  of  cattle,  about  two  million.  We  can 
appreciate  these  figures  when  we  learn  that  Chicago 
slaughters  more  hogs  annually  than  are  raised  in  all 
the  Atlantic  States  from  Maine  to  Florida,  omitting 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  Thus, 
in  addition  to  the  amount  of  grain  shipped  to  the 
East,  and  to  European  markets,  the  corn  of  the 
West  is  converted  into  cattle  and  hogs,  and  corn 


210 


The  Story  of  Corn 


,   1913.  h  JU.W  i 

Map  showing  the  areas  in  which  hogs  were  raised  in  /pop 

products  in  the  United  States  to-day  have  a  valua- 
tion greater  than  that  of  all  other  agricultural 
products  combined. 

As  population  moved  westward  into  the  great 
plains,  the  grass-fed  cattle  of  Montana,  the  Dakotas, 
and  even  Texas  were  shipped  ,to  Chicago,  where 
they  were  prepared  for  the  markets  of  the  world. 
Every  farmer  in  the  corn  belt  contributed  his  quota 
of  hogs  and  cattle,  thus  giving  a  meat  supply  to  the 
whole  of  America  and  to  much  of  Europe.  As  the 
West  developed,  however,  other  centers  like  Duluth, 
St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and  Omaha  developed,  and 
when  the  railroad  entered  these  cities  they,  too, 
began  to  supply  the  world  with  foodstuff. 

The  Product  of  the  Packing  Houses.  The 
packing  houses  have  become  great  factories  where 
complicated  machinery  is  at  work  slaughtering  the 


The  Granary  of  the  World 


211 


animals  and  converting  them  into  a  variety  of  useful 
things.  Nothing  is  thrown  away.  When  settlers 
first  entered  the  corn  country  very  little  of  the 
cattle — save  the  beef,  the  hides,  and  the  tallow- 
was  used.  But  to-day  not  a  thing  from  nose  to  tail 
is  thrown  away.  The  hide  is  first  removed,  and 
after  being  tanned  is  sent  to  the  factories  which 
make  all  kinds  of  leather  goods.  The  hind  quar- 
ters, loins,  and  ribs  are  carved  into  many  kinds  of 
steaks  or  roasts,  and  packed  in  ice  for  shipment. 
The  fore  quarters,  after  the  bones  are  removed, 
are  put  into  sweet  pickle  for  several  days,  then 
boiled,  packed  into  cans,  and  sold  as  corned 
beef.  The  bones  are  carefully  preserved  and  made 
into  such  articles  as  combs,  buttons,  and  hairpins, 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 


Some  American  corn-fed  stock 


212  The  Story  of  Corn 

or  they  are  ground  up  and  made  into  fertilizer. 
The  hair  is  sold  to  plasterers ;  the  hoofs  are  made  into 
glue;  and  the  blood  is  either  sold  to  sugar  manu- 
facturers to  be  used  in  whitening  sugar,  or  is  sold 
for  fertilizer.  In  addition  to  all  this,  we  have  beef 
extracts,  various  kinds  of  oil,  tallow  candles,  tripe, 
pickled  tongue,  and  many  other  products. 

The  number  of  articles  made  from  the  hog  is 
likewise  great.  Nothing  here  is  wasted.  The  hair 
is  first  removed  and  sold  to  dealers  to  be  used  in 
upholstering,  plastering,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
ropes,  mats,  brushes,  and  so  on.  The  meat  is  cut 
into  hams  of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  and  many 
kinds  of  side  meat. 

From  the  fat  of  the  hog  several  grades  of  lard 
are  made,  to  be  used  in  cooking,  in  making  a  kind 
of  butter  known  as  butterine,  and  in  purifying  old 
butter.  Sausage  is  made  chiefly  from  the  lean 
meat  taken  from  various  parts  of  the  animal  and 
much  of  it  is  stuffed  into  casings  made  from  the 
entrails.  Other  parts  of  the  flesh  are  converted  into 
soap,  glycerine,  and  so  on,  while  the  bones,  blood, 
and  all  refuse  taken  from  the  stomachs  of  the 
animals  are  used  in  the  same  way  as  the  similar  parts 
of  cattle. 

The  meat-packing  business  of  Chicago  is  thus 
seen  to  be  a  great  and  far-reaching  industry.  Every 
grocery  store  in  this  country  and  in  nearly  every 
country  of  Europe  carries  many  articles  made  from 
the  cattle  and  hogs  slaughtered  in  Chicago.  As 
this  business  has  grown  there  has  come  a  greater 


The  Granary  of  the  World 


213 


demand  for  the  corn  of  the  West,  since  the  vast 
numbers  of  cattle  and  hogs  depend  in  a  large  meas- 
ure upon  this  for  their  food  supply. 

The  Grain  Trade  of  Chicago.  Chicago's  situation 
at  the  head  of  the  most  southwestern  of  the  Great 
Lakes  has  given  it  great  advantage  in  trade  and 
industry.  It  has  become  the  greatest  railroad 


From  a  painting  by  Laurence  C.  Earle 

The  first  grain  elevator  in  Chicago,  1838.     The  first  shipment  of 

grain,  made  that  year,  amounted  to  seventy-eight  bushels.    In 

1010  Chicago  shipped  225,000,000  bushels  of  corn  alone 

center  in  the  world,  and  its  ability  to  command  a 
vast  supply  as  well  as  its  facility  for  distributing 
grain  is  unequaled  by  any  city  in  the  world.  There- 
fore it  is  to-day  the  greatest  grain  market,  the 
greatest  live-stock  market,  and  the  greatest  meat- 
packing center  in  the  world.  It  receives  annually 
nearly  three  hundred  million  bushels  of  grain  and 
ships  approximately  two  hundred  twenty-five  mil- 
lion bushels.  The  Chicago  dealers  received  in  1910 


214  The  Story  of  Corn 

more  corn  than  is  produced  in  all  the  Atlantic 
States  from  Maine  to  Florida,  and  much  of  the 
two  hundred  twenty-five  million  bushels  shipped 
from  that  grain  center  was  sold  to  the  merchants 
of  those  states.  When  we  remember  that  in  1838 
Chicago  made  its  first  shipment  of  grain,  and  that 
the  total  amount  was  only  seventy-eight  bushels, 
we  can  have  some  idea  of  the  tremendous  develop- 
ment of  this  city  which  to-day  is  the  second  in  size  in 
America  and  the  fourth  in  the  world — and  its  won- 
derful growth  has  been  due  for  the  most  part  to  the 
boundless  cornfields  of  the  West.  So  important  has 
this  grain  market  become  that  almost  every  hour 
in  the  day  the  telegraph  or  the  telephone  sends,  to 
every  part  of  the  world,  news  from  the  Chicago 
grain  market.  London,  Paris,  Rome,  Bombay, 
Sydney,  Shanghai — every  large  commercial  center  of 
the  world — looks  each  morning  for  the  latest  news 
from  Chicago,  to  learn  the  price  of  bread  and  the 
world's  supply  of  food. 

The  Center  of  the  World's  Food  Supply.  By 
1870  the  states  along  the  coast  had  ceased  to  produce 
their  own  food  supply.  New  England  was  producing 
less  wheat  in  1870  than  in  1850,  and  by  1890  wheat 
cultivation  had  practically  ceased  in  that  section  of 
the  country.  Food  had  been  plentiful  in  the  South 
Atlantic  States  until  the  Civil  War,  and  even  during 
that  period  it  was  produced  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  support  the  home  folks  and  supply  the  army  in 
the  field.  By  1870,  however,  the  food  supply  had 
been  reduced  about  one  half,  and  in  1890  very  few 


The  Granary  of  the  World 


215 


of  the  Southern  States  were  producing  as  much  food 
as  in  1860.  In  the  meantime,  however,  the  popu- 
lation of  these  states  had  almost  doubled.  In  the 
Middle  Atlantic  States  the  food  supply  was  barely 
holding  its  own.  The  following  table  tells  the  story : 

PRODUCTION  OF  WHEAT  AND  CORN  ON  THE  SEABOARD 

WHEAT 


STATES 

1850 

1890 

Loss  OR  GAIN 

New  England  

1,100,000  bu. 

290,000  bu. 

77%  loss 

Middle  Atlantic  
South  Atlantic  

35,067,000 
15,575,000 

41,582,000 
14,000,000 

19%  gain 
10%  loss 

CORN 


STATES 

1850 

1890 

Loss  OR  GAIN 

New  England  

10,200,000  bu. 

6,126,000  bu. 

40%  loss 

Middle  Atlantic  
South  Atlantic  

60,348,000 
111,608,000 

84,090,000 
99,700,000 

39%  gain 
1  1  %  loss 

POPULATION 


STATES 

1850 

1890 

GAIN 

New  England  

2,728,116 

4,  7OO,  74.5 

liCl 

Middle  Atlantic  
South  Atlantic  

6,573,301 
3,952,837 

13,917,683 
6,653,851 

"1% 

69% 

The  population  of  the  seaboard  states  was  more 
than  doubled  in  the  period  from  1850  to  1890,  while 
the  production  of  food  was  reduced  about  one  half. 
Therefore,  if  the  seaboard  states  had  not  received 
grain  from  the  West  their  inhabitants  might  have 
starved.  The  total  food  supply  of  America,  how- 
ever, was  rapidly  increasing.  The  grain  fields  of 
the  great  West  were  supplying  the  whole  of  America 
and  a  large  part  of  Europe  with  food,  and  annually 
drawing  millions  of  inhabitants  from  the  Old  World. 

Between   1850  and   1890  nearly  fifteen  million 


2l6 


The  Story  of  Corn 


I       I  Less  than  35  bu.ptr  nj.  tHilt 
?j  to  200  bu.  per  sq.  mile 
200  to  7,000  bu.  per  sg.  mite 
l,ooo  bu.  per  iq.  mile  and 


Map  showing  the  production  of  corn  in  the  United  States  in  1849 

immigrants  came  to  America.  The  following  table 
shows  how  immigration  increased  by  decades  from 
1823  to  1910: 


YEAR 

IMMIGRANTS 

YEAR 

IMMIGRANTS 

1823. 
1830. 
1840. 
1850. 
i860. 

6,334 
23,322 
84,066 
369,986 
150,237 

1870... 
1880... 
1890... 
I9OO.  .  . 
1910.  .  . 

387,203 

457,257 
455,302 
448,572 
1,041,570 

The  free  lands  and  the  great  fields  of  grain  had 
made  the  West  so  prosperous  that  a  steady  stream 
of  settlers  from  Europe  poured  into  this  country. 
They  filled  up  the  cities,  supplied  laborers  for  the 
growing  industries,  and  bought  homes  in  the  fertile 
lands  of  the  West.  And  it  was  in  the  decade  from 
1890  to  1900  that  corn  products,  including  all  kinds 
of  meats  from  animals  fattened  on  corn,  surpassed  in 
value  all  the  other  agricultural  products  combined. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

How   THE   WEST   BECAME  THE   GRANARY   OF 
THE  WORLD 

Before  the  Days  of  Improved  Machinery.  When 
we  consider  the  crude  tools  that  our  ancestors  in 
Europe  used  to  cultivate  the  land  we  little  wonder 
that  the  world  was  frequently  visited  by  famine. 
Plowing  with  a  crooked  stick  and  reaping  with  a 
hand  sickle  are  certainly  very  inadequate  means  for 
providing  the  world  with  food.  Improved  machin- 
ery for  cultivating  the  land  was  late  in  coming.  The 
great  manufactories  of  the  East  were  drawing  labor- 
ers from  the  fields,  and  this  would  have  diminished 
the  food  supply  very  materially  but  for  the  opening 
up  of  the  fertile  lands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
which  drew  several  million  people  from  the  East 
and  from  many  sections  of  Europe. 

Wheat  could  not  be  depended  upon.  It  required 
nine  months  to  grow  a  crop,  and  when  it  was  ripe 
for  harvesting  it  must  all  be  gathered  at  once  or  the 
rains  and  storms  of  summer  would  destroy  much  of 
it.  It  had  to  be  cut  by  hand.  The  sickle  was  first 
used  and  then  came  the  hand  scythe,  but  this  was 
a  slow  process  and  many  hands  were  required  to 
gather  the  crop.  The  corn  of  the  country  had  also 
to  be  gathered  by  hand,  but  Indian  corn  would 
thrive  in  any  climate  and  soil  in  America.  Before 

217 


218  The  Story  of  Corn 

the  days  of  improved  machinery  a  man  could  culti- 
vate a  few  acres  simply  by  using  a  crooked  piece  of 
iron  as  a  hoe,  and  have  food  in  plenty.  The  great 
prairies  of  the  West  could  produce  both  wheat  and 
corn  in  tremendous  quantities,  but  the  problem  was 
how  to  harvest  each  with  the  least  expense.  The 
cost  of  getting  the  grain  from  the  fields,  in  those  days 
of  slow  transportation,  was  frequently  equal  to  the 
market  price.  Settlers  in  the  great  grain  country 
usually  cultivated  only  small  areas,  but  even  then 
when  laborers  were  scarce  much  grain  was  often 
left  in  the  fields  for  the  cattle  and  hogs  to  eat. 

The  great  changes  that  have  taken  place  since 
those  early  days  when  tools  were  few  and  very  crude 
would  furnish  material  for  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting chapters  in  the  history  of  America.  The 
genius  of  man  gave  the  steamboat  and  the  railroad. 
These  brought  the  West  in  touch  with  the  great 
commercial  centers  of  the  world.  Not  only  that, 
but  these  agencies  created  in  the  West  itself  some 
of  the  leading  world  centers.  Other  inventions 
came  along  with  the  railroad  and  the  steamboat  and 
cooperated  with  them  in  making  the  West  the 
granary  of  the  world.  The  first  of  these  was  the 
reaper,  used  in  harvesting  the  wheat.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  important  inventions  in  the  whole  history 
of  America,  and  it  led  the  way  for  the  invention  of 
many  other  machines  now  used  in  harvesting  corn. 

McCormick  and  the  Reaper.  Before  the  Revo- 
lutionary War  a  family  of  McCormicks  had  settled 
in  a  valley  of  Virginia,  and  in  1809  Cyrus  Hall 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World  '  219 

McCormick  of  the  third  generation  was  born.  He 
received  the  greater  part  of  his  training  in  his  father's 
workshop,  where  farming  utensils  were  made  for  the 
McCormick  plantation.  Much  of  his  time,  how- 
ever, was  spent  in  the  fields  with  his  father.  Here 
he  discovered  that  reaping  wheat  with  a  sickle  or 
hand  scythe  was  no  quick  or  easy  task,  and  that 
swinging  a  wheat  cradle  all  day  under  the  summer 
sun  was  about  the  hardest  work  that  had  to  be  done 
on  the  farm.  Cyrus's  father  had  invented  a  heavy, 
awkward  machine,  called  a  reaper.  This  was  pushed 
by  a  pair  of  horses,  and  was  not  successful. 

Cyrus  began  where  his  father  left  off,  and  by  1831 
he  was  ready  to  try  his  machine.  It  was  not  until 
1834,  however,  that  he  took  out  his  patent. 

For  a  few  years  McCormick  lost  money  on  his 
machines.  The  great  wheat  country  was  west  of 
the  mountains,  and  it  was  difficult  in  those  days  of 
slow  transportation  to  ship  his  reapers  to  the  West. 
In  1847  he  decided  to  locate  in  Chicago,  which  at 
that  time  was  becoming  an  important  lake  port. 
He  needed  money  to  put  his  machines  on  the  mar- 
ket, and  was  fortunate  in  being  able  to  form  a  co- 
partnership with  William  B.  Ogden,  who  paid  him 
twenty-five  thousand  dollars  for  a  half  interest  in 
the  invention.  The  business  grew  so  rapidly  that 
at  the  end  of  two  years  McCormick  was  able  to  buy 
back  the  half  interest  for  fifty  thousand  dollars. 

The  Effect  of  the  Reaper.  The  reaper  was  a 
necessity  because  farm  laborers  were  scarce  and  the 
wheat  fields  enormously  productive.  In  fact,  the 


220  The  Story  of  Corn 

growth  of  the  newly  opened  West  would  have  been 
indefinitely  retarded  if  man  had  had  to  cut  the  grain 
by  hand  and  harvest  it  in  the  old  primitive  way  which 
was  little  better  than  the  method  used  by  the 
Egyptians  in  the  days  of  Joseph  and  the  Pharaohs. 
The  reaper  was  now  a  success,  and  soon  made  its 
appearance  in  the  fields  of  Russia,  Siberia,  Germany, 
France,  India,  Australia,  the  Argentine  country,  and 
wherever  wheat  was  .cultivated.  It  more  than 
trebled  the  output  of  grain,  and  made  it  possible 
for  cheaper  bread  t<?  reach  the  people  of  every  civil- 
ized land.  Because  of  this  it  is  an  invention  of  the 
greatest  economic  value  to  the  world. 

The  Threshing  Machine.  In  the  earliest  times 
the  grain  was  probably  shelled  by  hand,  but  as  the 
quantity  increased  it  was  beaten  out  with  a  stick 
and  separated  from  the  chaff  by  throwing  it  up  in 
the  air.  The  Egyptians  and  Hebrews  had  the  cus- 
tom of  spreading  the  loosened  sheaves  on  the  ground 
and  driving  oxen,  sheep,  and  other  animals  round 
and  round  over  them  so  as  to  tread  out  the  grain. 
But  the  ancient  nations  observed  that  this  process 
damaged  the  grain,  so  crude  machines  with  rollers 
and  spikes  were  invented.  The  first  really  success- 
ful machine  was  invented  by  a  Scotchman  in  1786, 
and  it  became  the  model  for  all  subsequent  threshers. 
With  the  development  of  the  steam  engine  the 
threshing  machine  increased  in  usefulness  and 
efficiency,  and  after  the  reaper  became  highly  per- 
fected, the  thresher  and  reaper  were  combined  in  one 
large  machine,  drawn  at  first  by  twenty  horses  and 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World  221 

later  by  a  traction  engine.  The  .two  machines,  now 
combined  into  one,  can  cut,  thresh,  and  sack  many 
hundred  bushels  a  day. 

The  Necessity  for  Machines  to  Harvest  Corn. 
Even  before  the  railroad  entered  Chicago,  Indian 
corn  was  the  chief  crop  of  the  northern  Mississippi 
Valley,  and  long  before  the  reaper  was  invented 
attempts  had  been  made  to  construct  a  machine 
that  would  make  the  harvesting  of  corn  much 
easier.  The  success  of  the  McCormick  reaper  in 
harvesting  wheat,  oats,  and  other  similar  cereals 
caused  many  mechanics  to  turn  their  attention  to 
working  out  an  invention  for  harvesting  corn.  The 
amount  of  work  that  one  man  can  do  without  the 
aid  of  machinery  is  limited.  Hence,  the  extent  of 
the  cornfields  would  be  limited  by  the  number  of 
hands  that  could  be  employed  to  cultivate  and  har- 
vest the  grain.  The  amount  of  grain,  together  with 
the  number  of  hogs,  cattle,  and  horses,  are  all  depend- 
ent to-day  upon  man's  ability  to  make  the  land 
yield  its  best.  With  the  aid  of  machinery,  man's 
hands  are  multiplied  almost  indefinitely. 

The  reaper  came  to  aid  man  in  harvesting  wheat, 
oats,  rye,  and  other  such  cereals,  and  made  the 
increased  production  of  these  cereals  marvelous. 
Man's  working  capacity  had  been  increased  a 
hundred  fold.  But  Indian  corn,  the  great  American 
grain,  that  had  saved  the  first  colonists  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  supported  Daniel  Boone  and  the  first 
settlers  of  the  prairie  country,  and  made  Chicago 
the  great  food  market  of  the  world,  was,  until  a  few 


222  The  Story  of  Corn 

years  ago,  harvested  almost  exclusively  by  hand. 
No  machine  which  could  relieve  the  farmer  of  the 
drudgery  relative  to  the  gathering  of  this  most 
valuable  grain  had  been  perfected.  In  order  to 
appreciate  more  fully  the  necessity  for  such  an 
invention,  let  us  pause  to  study  the  methods  of 
harvesting  corn. 

Methods  of  Harvesting  Corn.  In  most  sections 
of  the  country  where  corn  is  one  of  the  leading 
forage  crops,  it  is  customary  to  cut  the  stalks  close 
to  the  ground.  This  is  done  at  a  time  when  no 
damage  is  effected  to  the  ripening  grain  and  while 
a  considerable  amount  of  the  saccharine  juices  still 
remain  in  the  stalk.  .The  corn  is  then  set  up  in 
shocks  to  cure.  These  shocks,  varying  greatly  in 
size,  range  from  six  hills  square  (thirty-six  hills  to 
the  shock)  to  sixteen  hills  square  (two  hundred 
fifty-six  hills  to  the  shock).  The  size  depends 
usually  on  the  variety  of  corn,  some  kinds  requiring 
a  longer  time  to  cure  than  others. 

One  common  method  of  shocking  is  to  tie  the 
tops  of  four  hills  together  as  they  stand  and  then 
cut  and  shock  the  rest  around  them.  Another 
method  is  to  use  a  frame  called  a  "wooden  horse," 
or  a  post  fixed  in  the  ground,  as  a  kind  of  support. 
In  either  case,  great  care  is  taken  to  build  the  shock 
closely  around  the  support  that  it  may  not  be  blown 
down  by  heavy  winds  or  damaged  by  rain. 

After  the  fodder  has  been  cured,  which  generally 
takes  about  a  month,  the  corn  is  usually  husked  by 
hand  in  the  field.  The  ' '  stover  " — what  is  left  after 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World 


223 


Corn  fodder  in  the  shock 


Photograph  by  K.  J.  Hall 


the  ears  have  been  removed — is  then  tied  in  bundles 
and  reshocked,  and  the  ears  thrown  into  a  pile  on  the 
ground  near  the  shock  to  be  hauled  to  the  barn  and 
stored.  Sometimes  the  stover  is  hauled  to  the  barn, 
but  it  is  usually  left  standing  in  shocks  until  needed 
for  fodder. 

In  some  sections  of  the  Central  and  Southern 
States,  where  the  soil  is  rich  and  the  growing  season 
long,  the  corn  grows  so  tall  and  large  that  the  stalk 


224 


The  Story  of  Corn 


does  not  make  a  good  forage  crop.  The  farmers  of 
the  South  strip  the  blades  by  hand  from  these  stand- 
ing stalks.  This  is  called  "pulling  fodder."  The 
blades  thus  stripped  and  well  stored  furnish  an 
excellent  but  expensive  forage,  for  different  experi- 
ment stations  in  the  South  have  proved  conclusively 
that  the  stripping  of  corn  blades  is  unprofitable. 
In  other  sections  of  the  country  the  stalk  is  cut 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

A  corn  harvester  in  operation 

just  above  the  ear.  By  this  method  the  part  of  the 
stalk  which  is  most  readily  eaten  by  stock  is  obtained 
with  the  least  waste.  Experiments  have  shown,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  more  profitable  to  cut  and  shock  the 
whole  plant .  In  the  Middle  West  the  term  ' '  fodder ' ' 
means  the  entire  plants  as  ordinarily  cut  and  shocked, 
while  in  many  parts  of  the  South  this  term  is  applied 
only  to  the  blades  stripped  from  the  stalk. 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World  225 

These  methods  are  still  used  •  throughout  the 
country.  It  is  estimated  that  one  man  can  cut  and 
shock  by  hand  about  one  and  one  half  acres  a  day. 
Although  the  cost  per  acre  is  not  very  high,  still  the 
amount  that  can  be  produced  is  limited  by  the 
capacity  of  the  men  employed.  Machines  to  im- 
prove the  producing  capacity  of  one  man  are  needed, 
and  such  machines  are  already  in  evidence. 

The  First  Machines  for  Harvesting  Corn.  As 
early  as  1820  attempts  were  made  to  construct  a 
machine  that  would  make  it  easier  to  harvest  corn. 
From  that  time  until  1892  all  attempts  to  perfect 
such  a  machine  on  a  large  scale  were  unsuccessful. 
The  implement  first  used  for  cutting  corn  was  the 
hoe,  but,  as  this  was  rather  heavy  and  awkward,  the 
more  progressive  farmers  substituted  corn  knives. 
These  were  usually  made  from  scythe  blades,  but 
they  have  now  given  way  to  all  sizes  and  shapes  of 
factory-made  knives. 

Many  homemade  harvesters  of  the  sled  pattern 
were  made  from  time  to  time,  the  first  of  these 
being  patented  by  J.  C.  Peterson,  of  West  Mans- 
field, Ohio,  who  put  one  in  the  field  in  1886.  The 
illustrations  given  on  the  next  page  show  the  differ- 
ent models  in  use.  Usually  the  driver  rode  on  the 
platform,  gathering  the  stalks  in  his  arms  to  prevent 
them  from  falling  in  all  directions.  As  this  was 
very  laborious,  an  arm  was  added  to  the  machine,  as 
shown  in  the  second  illustration.  This  collected  the 
stalks  on  the  platform,  and  the  driver  needed  only  to 
pick  them  from  the  sled  and  throw  them  to  the  ground. 


226 


The  Story  of  Corn 


From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  303.  U.S.  Dept.  Air. 

A  homemade  one-row  harvester, 
sled  pattern 


The  next  improvement  was  to  mount  the  sled  on 
wheels,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  the  opposite 

page.  This  machine 
cuts  two  rows  at  a 
time.  Two  men  sit 
on  the  platform,  one 
facing  each  row,  and 
they  guide  the  corn 
against  the  cutting 
edge  with  one  hand 
while  with  the  other 
they  hold  the  stalks  until  enough  have  been  collected 
to  form  a  shock.  This  is  the  most  satisfactory  as 
well  as  the  least  expensive  of  all  the  corn-harvesting 
machines.  When  a  large  acreage  is  to  be  gone 
over  during  the  limited  time  within  which  it  is  most 
profitable  to  cut  corn,  corn  binders  and  corn  shockers 
are  the  most  economical  machinery. 

Corn  Binders.  One  of  the  earliest  forms  of  corn 
harvester  and  binder  was  con- 
structed as  a  modified  form 
of  the  McCormick  reaper. 
A  machine  embodying  prin- 
ciples which  seem  destined 
to  prevail  in  corn  harvesting 
was  invented  by  A.  S.  Peck  of 
Geneva,  Illinois,  and  patented 
January  5, 1892.  It  consisted 
of  a  corn  harvester  with  two 
divides  passing  one  on  each  side  of  a  row  of  corn. 
These  cut  the  stalks  and  carried  them  back  in  a 


From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  303. 
U.  S.  Dept.  Acr. 

Improved  one-row  harvester, 
with  arm  added 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World  227 

vertical  position  to  the  binder  attachment.  A 
standard  twine  binder  was  used,  set  in  a  vertical 
position  so  as  to  receive  the  stalks  and  keep  them 
in  position  until  the  bundle  was  tied.  The  horses 
were  hitched  behind  the  machine.  Since  1895  the 
self-binding  corn  harvester  has  had  a  considerable 
sale,  especially  in  the  leading  corn  states.  The 
main  features  of  the  Peck  type  predominate  in 
practically  all  the  corn  binders  now  built. 


From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  303,  U.  8.  Dept.  Agr. 

The  two-row  harvester  on  wheels.     Two  men 

sit  on  the  platform  to  aid  in  cutting 

and  gathering  the  stalks 

Corn  Shockers.  The  present  corn  shocker  was 
invented  in  1888  by  A.  N.  Hadley.  It  is  built  with 
a  frame  mounted  on  two  wheels,  and  consists  of  a 
device,  the  same  as  in  the  corn  binder,  for  gather- 
ing the  corn.  It  has  a  device  that  cuts  the  corn  as 
the  machine  advances.  Behind  the  cutting  device 
the  corn  is  collected,  shocked,  and  lifted  to  the 
ground  by  means  of  a  crane.  Improvements  have 
been  made  in  this  machine  with  the  result  that 
the  whole  operation  of  forming,  tying,  and  setting 
a  shock  can  now  be  done  in  five  minutes.  The 
work  of  only  one  man  is  required,  and  its  cost  is 


228  The  Story  of  Corn 

about  the  same  as  that  of  a  binder,  which  requires 
the  driver  and  two  or  three  men  to  follow  and  shock 
the  corn.  The  shocker  requires  one  man  and  three 
horses  to  operate  the  machine,  which  can  cut  and 
shock  nearly  five  acres  a  day.  Another  machine 
known  as  the  "loader"  has  also  been  invented.  As 
this  can  easily  handle  two  shocks  a  minute,  and  can 
lift  two  thousand  pounds,  it  adds  greatly  to  the  value 
of  the  shocker. 

Corn  Pickers.  In  the  "corn  belt"  corn  is  raised 
principally  for  the  ears,  which  are  "husked"  or 
picked  by  hand.  For  over  fifty  years  inventors  have 
been  busy  trying  to  perfect  a  machine  to  pick  the 
corn  from  the  stalk.  Such  a  machine  was  invented 
in  1850,  and  another  type  in  1874.  These,  however, 
have  not  been  successful.  Thus  far  no  picker  has 
been  constructed  that  will  not  to  some  extent  break 
down  or  tear  the  stalk  and  shell  the  corn. 

Between  1880  and  1890  a  great  deal  of  attention 
was  given  to  threshing  corn.  This  led  to  the  inven- 
tion of  a  combined  husker  and  shredder,  which 
takes  the  stalks  with  the  ears  on  them,  removes 
and  husks  the  ears,  and  then  prepares  the  stalks 
for  feeding. 

The  Plow.  The  most  important  of  all  agricul- 
tural operations  is  the  breaking  of  the  soil.  When 
the  prairie  lands  were  first  cultivated  the  settlers 
had  no  implements  but  an  ax,  a  hoe,  and  a  crooked 
stick.  When  the  Erie  Canal  was  opened  and  steam- 
boats were  making  swift  voyages  up  and  down  the 
Mississippi,  when  the  East  was  offering  larger  and 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World  229 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

Corn  husker  and  shredder.     The  machine  takes  the  stalks,  removes 

and  husks  the  ears,  and  chops  up  the  stalks 

for  cattle  food 

larger  prices  for  the  food  of  the  West,  the  plow  in 
use  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States  was  a  "mere 
wedge  with  a  short  beam  and  a  crooked  handle," 
fitted  with  a  movable  share  of  stone,  copper,  or 
iron,  wrought  to  a  suitable  shape. 

In  July,  1814,  Jethro  Wood  of  New  York  was 
granted  a  patent  for  a  cast-iron  plow  having  the 
mold-plate  share  and  land  side  and  cast  in  three  parts. 
This  plow  was  the  original  of  all  the  plows  invented 
since  that  time.  In  1840  the  first  subsoil  plow  came 
from  Scotland,  but  by  1850  the  American  plows 
had  become  famous  for  their  great  simplicity, 
lightness  of  draft,  neatness,  and  cheapness,  and  were 
being  sold  throughout  Europe. 

The  crooked  stick  was  superseded  by  the  one- 
horse  plow,  and  then  by  the  two-horse  plow.  Here 
one  laborer  was  dispensed  with  and  a  horse  added. 


230 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

A  sulky  plow 

The  two-horse  plow  soon  changed  into  a  sulky 
cultivator,  and  the  laborer  rode.  Then  came  the 
age  of  machinery.  Within  the  present  generation 
the  steam  engine  has  been  used  to  pull  the  plow, 
some  of  these  traction  engines  having  a  hundred 
twenty  horse-power.  They  draw  behind  them  as 
many  as  fifty  plows,  and  turn  over  from  seventy- 
five  to  ninety  acres  a  day.  It  was  in  the  fine 
prairie  lands  of  the  West  that  the  steam  plow  was 
developed.  In  addition  to  the  steam  traction 
engine  we  have  now  the  gasoline  engine,  and  it  is 
said  that  at  least  six  hundred  thousand  of  these  are 
at  present  in  use  in  America. 

The  Grain  Elevator.  We  have  now  seen  the  great 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  cultivating  and 
harvesting  grain.  The  changes  in  the  methods  of 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World  231 

handling  the  grain  for  exportation  are  quite  as  mar- 
velous. The  farmer  to-day  drives  a  wagon  load  of 
corn,  still  on  the  cob,  to  the  nearest  railroad  siding, 
where  stands  what  is  called  the  receiving  -house  or 
the  first  elevator.  The  wagon  is  driven  into  the 
building  and  weighed.  Then  the  front  of  the  wagon 
is  raised  by  machinery  and  the  corn  slides  down 
through  a  trap  door  into  the  shelling  room,  where 
it  is  quickly  shelled.  It  is  next  tumbled — cobs, 
husks,  grain,  and  all — into  the  bottom  of  an  elevator 
leg,  where  it  is  caught  up  and  carried  to  the  top  of 
the  building.  In  a  small  elevator  the  leg  will  carry 
up  a  thousand  bushels  an  hour.  On  reaching  the 
top  floor  the  grain  is  separated  from  the  cobs, 
trash,  and  dust,  and  poured  into  the  bins.  A  freight 


Copyright  by  Underwood  4  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

A  forty-five  horse-power  tractor  pulling  ten  fourteen-inch  plows. 

The  largest  tractors  haul  as  many  as  fifty  plows, 

turning  ninety  acres  a  day 

car  is  then  backed  under  the  spout  of  the  bin  and 
the  grain  poured  into  it  until  it  is  full.  .  The  corn  is 


232  The  Story  of  Corn 

usually  bound  for  Chicago,  and  soon  the  car  falls  in 
with  thousands  of  others  just  like  it,  all  bound  first 
for  Chicago  and  probably  later  for  Europe. 

The  first  elevator  at  the  railroad  station  is  compar- 
atively small,  many  being  about  twenty  by  twenty- 
four  feet,  but  about  forty-five  feet  high  in  order 
to  load  the  grain  on  the  cars  easily.  At  Chicago, 
the  car  is  switched  into  a  tremendous  elevator  that 
will  hold  as  much  as  two  million  bushels.  The 
door  is  pushed  back,  and  a  power  shovel  pulled  into 
the  car.  This  has  a  shoveling  capacity  of  about 
thirty  thousand  bushels  a  day,  and  empties  the  car 
in  a  short  time.  Again  the  grain  is  run  up  the  ele- 
vator boot.  It  is. then  tested  and  graded,  and  turned 
into  small  bins,  where  it  is  piled  sometimes  sixty  feet 
high.  The  grain  is  now  ready  to  be  distributed  to 
any  part  of  America  or  of  the  world.  If  it  is  to  be 
shipped  to  the  Southern  States,  another  car  is 
pushed  under  the  bin  and  is  loaded  within  a  few 
minutes;  if  it  is  bound  for  Europe,  a  grain  boat 
draws  up  alongside  the  elevator,  the  bin  is  opened, 
and  the  grain  poured  into  the  hold  until  it  is 
loaded. 

Such  is  the  method  of  handling  the  grain  of  the 
West.  Thousands  of  elevators  are  distributed  all 
over  the  corn  country,  the  largest,  of  course,  being 
found  in  the  largest  cities  and  along  the  lake  coast 
from  Buffalo  to  Chicago.  The  statement  that  one 
of  the  largest  elevators  will  hold  two  million  bushels 
of  corn  can  be  appreciated  only  by  making  a  com- 
parison. Seventeen  of  these  elevators  could  hold  all 


The  West  the  Granary  of  the  World  233 


the  corn  raised  in  North  Carolina,  and  three  of  them 
all  the  corn  produced  in  the  six  New  England  States. 
How  the  West  became  the  Granary  of  the  World. 
We  are  now  beginning  to  see  the  forces  that  have 
been  at  work  changing  the  Northwest  into  the 
world's  great  food  center.  The  steamboat,  the 
canal,  the  railroad,  and  the  steam  engine  provided 
means  for  moving  the  grain  from  the  fields.  The 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

Sulky  cultivators  at  work  in  the  Fox  River  Valley,  Illinois 

improvements  made  in  the  plow  and  the  coming  of 
the  traction  engine  made  it  possible  for  one  man 
to  cultivate  vast  areas  of  land.  The  reaper,  the 
thresher,  and  the  corn-harvesting  machinery  made 
it  easy  to  harvest  the  grain,  and  the  elevator  so 
reduced  the  cost  of  handling  it  that  other  countries 
are  not  even  able  to  compete  with  this  section. 
What  a  change  has  taken  place  since  the  settlers 


235 

of  America  cultivated  the  land  with  a  crooked  stick 
and  complained  against  the  introduction  of  the  plow 
because  of  the  idea  held  in  those  days  that  iron 
poisoned  the  soil!  What  a  mighty  transformation 
has  taken  place  in  the  business  and  trade  of  the 
world  since  trains  of  pack  horses  carried  hides  and 
furs  to  the  cities  of  the  Eastern  States,  and  since  grain 
rotted  in  the  fields  of  the  West  while  hundreds  of 
people  in  the  East  actually  suffered  for  bread ! 

The  writers  of  history  crowd  into  many  volumes 
the  names  and  deeds  of  men  of  valor  who  have  led 
armies,  sacked  cities,  and  put  the  inhabitants  to 
the  sword.  They  tell  also  of  wise  legislators  who 
have  adjusted  the  written  law  to  the  needs  of  the 
people.  ,  But  the  inventors  of  modern  machinery 
and  the  recent  students  of  the  soil  have  probably 
wrought  more  wonderful  changes  in  the  world's 
history  within  the  last  century  and  a  half  than  all 
the  generals  and  lawgivers  from  Abraham's  day  to 
the  birth  of  George  Washington. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  LAST  AMERICAN  FRONTIERS 

The  Last  of  the  Prairie  Lands.  We  have  seen  the 
value  to  the  new  nation  of  the  frontiers  and  the  free 
lands  of  the  West.  We  have  seen  settlers  come  to 
the  eastern  shores,  and,  following  the  rivers,  push 
westward  into  the  interior.  We  have  seen  colonists 
cross  the  mountains,  and,  as  a  result,  England  go  to 
war  with  France  and  take  the  lands  west  of  the 
mountains.  We  have  seen  settlers  under  Daniel 
Boone  cross  over  into  the  blue-grass  region  and  take 
possession  of  the  great  Mississippi  Valley.  We  have 
seen  many  millions  of  people  come  from  Europe, 
and,  joining  millions  more  from  the  Atlantic  Coast 
States,  journey  westward  across  the  Mississippi 
into  the  valleys  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Platte. 
Westward  this  mighty  stream  of  homeseekefs 
flowed.  It  poured  through  the  mountain  passes 
and  appropriated  the  land  along  the  Pacific  coast. 
However,  when  settlers  reached  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains they  had  no  such  difficulty  in  crossing  them 
and  taking  possession  of  the  lands  beyond  as 
Daniel  Boone  and  his  followers  had  in  crossing 
the  Appalachian  ridge  a  hundred  years  before. 

The  United  States  is  a  large  country,  but  home- 
seekers  may  travel  to-day  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  in  less  time  than  it  took  Daniel  Boone  to  go 

236 


The  Last  American  Frontiers 


237 


from  North  Carolina  to  Kentucky.     Cheap  land  may 
be  found  in  almost  every  state,  for  often  the  owner 


Copyright  by  Underwood  A  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Buffalo  in  Yellowstone  National  Park.     Of  the  vast  herds  that  once 
roamed  our  plains,  less  than  one  thousand  now  remain,  care- 
fully protected  in  our  parks  and  zoological  gardens 

is  ignorant  of  its  value,  or  unable  to  make  it  yield 
abundantly.  But  there  is  now  very  little  free  land 
such  as  was  plentiful  in  the  Mississippi  Valley  a  half 
century  ago.  Even  the  great  grassy  plains  of  little 
rain  are  no  longer  the  home  of  the  cowboy  and  the 
buffalo,  for  the  great  American  desert  has  been  occu- 
pied, and  irrigation  is  making  it  blossom  like  the  gar- 
dens of  the  East.  Rich  land  will  never  again  be  so 
cheap  in  America,  and  the  owners  of  such  land  who 
cannot  make  it  increase,  or  even  maintain,  its  fertility 
stand  in  the  way  of  the  world's  progress  to-day. 


238 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Movement  of  Population.  We  have  seen  how 
eagerness  for  free  lands  sent  settlers  west  by  the 
million;  how  in  the  thirties  and  forties  the  thirteen 
original  states  along  the  Atlantic  gave  up  their  inhab- 
itants and  almost  ceased  to  grow;  while  the  West 
was  drawing  many  of  its  best  citizens  from  the  East 
and  from  almost  every  civilized  nation  of  Europe. 
But  the  last  two  decades  begin  to  tell  a  different  tale. 

Settlers  always  move  in  the  direction  of  cheap 
land.  If  land  is  free,  the  rush  of  settlers,  in  that 
direction  is  generally  great.  The  land  of  the  north- 
ern Mississippi  Valley  has  practically  all  been  taken 
up  and  is  so  valuable  to-day  that  only  those  with 
wealth  can  purchase  it.  Homeseekers  have  had  to 
move  on  farther  and  farther  west  until  the  Pacific 
coast  has  been  reached.  In  the  last  decade  many 
of  the  northern  states  of  the  Great  Central  Plain 
have  almost  ceased  to  grow.  Indeed,  Iowa  has  lost 
in  population,  and  Indiana,  Missouri,  Nebraska, 
and  Wisconsin  have  grown  but  very  little.  Not  a 
state  of  the  great  grain  region  of  the  corn  country, 
except  the  Dakotas,  has  kept  pace  with  the  average 
growth  of  the  United  States  from  1900  to  1910,  as 
this  table  shows. 

GROWTH  IN  POPULATION  FROM  1900  TO  1910 


STATE 

PERCENT 

STATE 

PERCENT 

Ohio  

14.7 

Missouri  

6.0 

Indiana  

7.  ">> 

Nebraska  

11.  8 

Illinois  

16  o 

Kansas  

IS   O 

Michigan  

16  I 

Kentucky  

6  6 

Wisconsin  

12    8 

Tennessee  

8   I 

Minnesota  

18   5 

North  Dakota 

80  8 

Iowa  (lost)  

0-3 

South  Dakota  

45-4 

The  Last  American  Frontiers 


239 


The  United  States  as  a  whole  increased  twenty-one 
per  cent  in  population. 

How  the  Far  West  is  dependent  upon  the  Corn 
Country.  The  great  gain  in  population  during  the 
last  decade  has  been  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  and 
Pacific  Coast  States,  as  the  following  table  shows: 

GAIN  IN  POPULATION,  AND  PRODUCTION  OF  CORN  AND 
WHEAT  PER  INHABITANT  IN  1910 


STATE 

PER  CENT 

CORN  IN  BUSHELS 

WHEAT  IN  BI-MII-.I.S 

Montana  *.  . 

54-5 

less  than  I 

2O 

Idaho  

101  .3 

less  than  I 

\2 

Wyoming  

S7  .  7 

less  than  2 

IO 

Colorado  

48.0 

less  than  7 

1  1 

New  Mexico  

67.6 

less  than  4 

2j 

Arizona  

66.2 

less  than  2 

•l 

Utah     

-i±  q 

less  than  I 

12 

Nevada  

93  4 

less  than  I 

IO 

Washington  

120.4 

less  than  I 

31 

Oregon  .  . 

62.7 

less  than  I 

23 

California  

60.  1 

less  than  I 

3 

These  states,  however,  do  not  produce  their  own 
bread.  They  barely  average  a  bushel  of  corn  to 
the  inhabitant.  Of  wheat,  Washington,  Oregon, 
Montana,  and  Idaho  raise  a  surplus,  but  the  other 
states  do  not  produce  even  sufficient  for  their  own 
population.  This  is  the  great  stock  country  of 
America.  We  have  already  referred  to  sections  of. 
it  as  the  land  of  little  rain.  In  that  vast  region  from 
the  Missouri  River  westward  the  lofty  plateaus 
furnish  a  great  grazing  country,  about  one  third  the 
total  area  of  the  United  States.  This  region  fur- 
nishes most  of  the  young  cattle  which  are  later 
shipped  into  the  corn  country  to  be  fattened  and 
prepared  for  market.  Half-wild  horses  roam  the 
plains;  sheep  raising  is  one  of  the  chief  industries. 


240 


The  Story  of  Corn 


But  it  is  easy  to  see  that  these  states  lie  beyond 
the  great  corn  belt,  and  that  both  men  and  animals 


West  of  the  Missouri  River  the  lofty  plateaus  furnish  a  great 

grazing  country,  largely  given  over  to  cattle,  horses,  and  sheep, 

and  therefore  to  a  certain  extent  dependent  upon  the 

corn  country  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 

must  depend  to  a  certain  extent  upon  the  corn  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  population  of  the  United  States  increased 
twenty-one  per  cent  between  1900  and  1910.  The 
great  problem  confronting  America  to-day  is  'how 
to  make  the  land  produce  an  ever-increasing  amount 
of  corn  and  wheat  to  furnish  bread  for  the  growing 
population  and  to  supply  beef,  pork,  and  horses 
sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  people.  We  have 
come  into  an  era  of  study  of  the  soil,  experimental 
work  in  agriculture,  and  reforms  in  education. 

Improvements  in  Agriculture.  It  was  clear  to 
George  Washington  while  he  was  President  that  the 


The  Last  American  Frontiers 


241 


From  Professional  Paper  No.  37.  U.  8.  Geol.  Survey 

An  abandoned  hillside  in  North  Carolina  eroded  or  worn  away 
by  the  action  of  rain 

longer  the  land  was  cultivated  the  poorer  it  became, 
and  that  the  richest  lands  were  the  new  fields  just 
cleared  of  forests.  The  richest  lands  in  the  past 


242  The  Story  of  Corn 

have  been  near  the  frontiers.  As  the  old  lands 
"wore  out"  they  were  abandoned  and  new  lands 
cleared.  The  long  stretches  of  old-field  pine  and  the 
washed-away  hillsides  to  be  seen  in  the  East  as  well 
as  the  South  tell  the  story  of  man's  inability  in  the 
past  to  make  the  land  increase  in  fertility. 

Washington  was  himself  a  careful  farmer  and 
wiser  than  most  men  in  his  generation,  and  he 
repeatedly  called  attention  to  these  things.  As 
early  as  1785  agricultural  societies  were  established 
in  Pennsylvania  and  South  Carolina,  for  even  then 
food  was  beginning  to  grow  scarce  in  some  sections 
of  the  East.  It  was  natural  that  the  first  agri- 
cultural schools  should  be  established  in  the  East, 
and  that  the  founder  of  all  the  land-grant  agricultural 
colleges  should  come  from  Vermont.  Senator  Justin 
Morrill,  of  that  state,  in  1862  induced  Congress  to 
pass  a  law  allowing  to  each  state  thirty  thousand 
acres  of  public  lands  for  each  representative  in 
Congress,  to  be  used  in  support  of  agricultural  and 
mechanical  colleges.  In  this  way  the  western  lands 
that  were  drawing  the  population  of  the  East  from 
the  worn-out  farms  along  the  seaboard  were  at  last 
contributing  some  of  their  wealth  toward  rebuilding 
the  East. 

It  was  the  great  corn  country,  however,  that  made 
agriculture  a  science.  Here  improved  machinery 
was  first  used  and  the  first  agricultural  college  was 
established  (1857).  Here  an  intelligent  attempt 
was  first  made  to  avoid  the  mistakes  of  the  East, 
and  to  save  the  land  from  being  worn  out.  It  was 


The  Last  American  Frontiers 


243 


a  western  man,  Representative  Hatch,  of  Missouri, 
who  was  instrumental  in  pushing  through  Congress 


Photograph  by  H.  D.  Ayer 

A  class  at  the  Minnesota  School  of  Agriculture  learning  to  judge 
corn  for  its  growing  qualities  and  food  values 

in  1887  another  bill  appropriating  the  proceeds  of 
western  public  lands  to  establish  experiment  stations 
in  every  state  of  the  Union.  Thus  the  western  lands 
contributed  to  the  building  up  of  the  lands  in  the 
older  states. 

Population  increasing  faster  than  Corn  Production. 
The  following  table  shows  the  total  grain  production 
by  decades  from  1880  to  1910,  and  the  yield  per  acre 
for  the  whole  United  States.  It  will  be  observed 
that  considerably  less  corn  was  produced  in  1890 
than  in  1880,  although  there  were  twelve  million 
more  people  to  feed.  It  was  near  the  end  of  this 
decade  that  experimental  stations  to  study  the  land 


244 


The  Story  of  Corn 


were  established  in  every  state  of  the  Union.  Since 
1890  the  work  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and 
experiment  stations  has  brought  about  more  inten- 
sive farming,  resulting  in  an  increased  food  supply. 
However,  even  the  very  large  corn  crop  of  1910  did 
not  give  as  much  per  capita  as  did  the  yield  of  1880. 

CORN  PRODUCTION  BY  DECADES 


YEAR 

POPULATION 

CORN  IN  BUSHELS 

PER  CAPITA  YIELD 
IN  BUSHELS 

1880 
1890 
IQOO 
1910 

50,155,783 
62,947,714 

75,994,575 
91,972,266 

1,717,435,000 
1,489,970,000 
2,105,103,000 
2,886,260,000 

34  2 
23.6 
27.7 
3i-4 

When  our  first  census  was  taken  in  1790  only  four 
per  cent  of  the  people  lived  in  cities.  In  1850  about 
a  third  of  the  population  lived  in  cities,  while 
approximately  two  thirds  of  the  people  were  produc- 
ing food  for  themselves  and  the  other  one  third.  In 
1910  only  a  third  of  the  population  remained  in  the 
country,  and  upon  this  one  third  falls  the  duty  of 
producing  enough  surplus  foodstuff  to  feed  the  entire 
population  of  America.  No  wonder  farming  has 
become  a  profitable  occupation  within  the  last  ten 
years,  and  no  wonder  the  whole  nation  has  turned 
its  attention  to  the  improvement  of  the  soil. 

The  Value  of  Corn  in  the  World's  Commerce. 
We  have  already  seen  that  before  the  days  of  the 
railroad  a  large  portion  of  the  grain  of  the  West  was 
converted  into  cattle  and  hogs  and  sold  chiefly  in 
eastern  markets.  After  1850,  we  find  meat  products 
forming  a  greater  and  still  greater  part  of  the 
exports.  In  1877  the  export  of  grain  and  meat  was 


The  Last  American  Frontiers  245 

more  valuable  than  the  cotton  exported,  and  in  1893 
the  corn  and  meat  exports  alone  were  equal  in  value 
to  the  cotton. 

If  we  consider  the  meat  derived  from  cattle  and 
hogs  as  products  of  corn,  the  export  value  of  this 
one  grain  in  1893  was  about  one  hundred  eighty- 
five  million  dollars,  while  that  of  cotton  was  about 
one  hundred  eighty-eight  million  dollars.  In  1898 
the  export  value  of  the  corn  products  was  about 
two  hundred  eighty  million  dollars,  while  that  of 
cotton  was  only  two  hundred  thirty  million  dollars. 
In  1901  the  corn  products  reached  the  enormous 
sum  of  five  hundred  eighty-five  million  dollars, 
while  cotton  stood  at  only  three  hundred  thirteen 
million  dollars.  This  was  the  highest  export  value 
ever  reached  by  American  corn  in  the  commerce  of 
the  world.  From  that  time  its  export  value  has 
decreased,  while  that  of  cotton  has  been  on  the 
increase.  In  1911  the  corn  and  meat  exported 
barely  reached  the  value  of  two  hundred  million 
dollars,  less  than  half  the  valuation  in  1901. 

The  use  of  corn  as  a  food  for  man  and  beast,  and 
the  increasing  demand  for  products  derived  from 
corn,  have  caused  its  price  at  home  to  increase  more 
than  a  hundred  per  cent  within  the  past  ten  years. 
Therefore,  the  profits  in  corn  at  home  are  becoming 
so  great  that  the  surplus  to  be  exported  is  growing 
less  annually. 

Other  Food  Centers  develop.  America  taught 
Europe  the  value  of  Indian  corn,  but  has  been 
unable  to  supply  the  demand  created.  Europe 


246  The  Story  of  Corn 

must  have  Indian  corn,  however,  for  England, 
Belgium,  Germany,  France,  Holland,  Denmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Italy,  Russia,  and 
the  Balkan  States  have  come  to  depend  upon  this 
grain.  We  have  already  seen  that  America  in  1910 
was  exporting  considerably  less  foodstuff  than  in 
1900.  Yet  in  1909  Europe  imported  nearly  two 
hundred  million  bushels  of  Indian  corn  alone. 
Where  did  it  come  from? 

In  1 88 1  a  new  river  valley  was  opened.  It  was 
not  in  North  America,  but  in  South  America. 
Suppose  you  study  the  geography  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.  The  climate  of  that  great  nation  cor- 
responds to  the  climate  of  the  United  States  from 
Mexico  to  Hudson  Bay.  Buenos  Aires,  its  capital, 
has  the  same  latitude  in  the  south  temperate 
zone  as  Memphis,  Tennessee,  in  the  north  temper- 
ate zone.  In  this  section  of  South  America  three 
great  rivers  coming  together  form  the  La  Plata 
system,  and  it  is  this  great  river  valley  that  is 
now  supplying  the  larger  part  of  the  corn  imported 
into  European  countries.  In  1878  the  production 
of  foodstuff  in  the  Argentine  was  insufficient  for 
even  its  scattered  inhabitants.  Three  years  later 
the  lands  were  thrown  open  to  European  settlers, 
and  during  the  past  ten  years  the  export  of  wheat 
and  corn  has  been  considerable.  The  land  yields 
only  about  twelve  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre,  an 
evidence  that  agriculture  in  the  Argentine  is  not 
far  advanced  as  a  science.  Although  only  a  very 
small  part  of  this  great  river  valley  is  as  yet  under 


The  Last  American  Frontiers 


247 


After  Plate  VII,  Report  No.  75,  U.  8.  Dept.  A«r. 

Loading  grain  ships,  Argentina,  by  means  of  a  permanent  chute 
or  canalita,  built  out  from  the  'high  banks  along  the  shore 

cultivation,  about  half  of  the  corn  imported  into  the 
European  countries  in  1909  came  from  the  Argentine 
alone. 

In  1911  Sir  Thomas  Price,  of  London,  made  a 
report  to  Parliament  on  the  storage  and  handling 
of  grain  in  Europe,  the  United  States,  and  Canada. 
England,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  a  manufacturing 
nation,  and  its  food  supply  must  come  from  abroad. 
The  first  question  that  Sir  Thomas  Price  was  asked 
to  report  on  was,  Can  South  Africa  grow  Indian 
corn,  and  what  advantage  does  the  South  African 
grower  possess  over  his  competitors?  His  answer 
to  this  question  is  as  follows :  "  It  is  pleasant  to  hear 
the  uniform  testimony  in  every  country  visited— 
Great  Britain,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  France, 


248  The  Story  of  Corn 

and  Italy — as  to  the  excellence,  as  a  rule,  of  South 
African  maize  in  comparison  with  the  maize  received 
from  other  countries  ....  I  was  assured  that 
twenty  times  the  quantity,  and  even  more,  than 
South  Africa  at  present  exports  would  find  a  ready 
market  ....  The  advantages  which  the  South 
African  maize  producer  possesses  that  call  for 
special  mention  are:  (i)  the  good  quality  that  can 
be  grown;  (2)  the  good  climate;  (3)  the  low  per 
cent  of  moisture  (in  the  grain) ;  (4)  the  good  reputa- 
tion established  by  careful  and  impartial  govern- 
ment grading;  (5)  less  cost  of  land;  and  (6)  the 
preference  for  colonial  maize." 

Thus  we  see  that  new  corn  lands  are  being  opened 
in  South  America  and  South  Africa,  and  the  center 
of  the  world's  food  supply  may  pass  to  one  of  these 
continents.  We  are  already  importing,  according 
to  the  report  of  1911,  about  fifteen  million  dollars 
worth  of  foodstuff,  which  is  about  six  times  as 
much  as  we  imported  in  1901.*  This  includes  corn, 
wheat,  flour,  meat,  and  dairy  products.  While  the 
total  is  small  for  so  large  a  country  as  the  United 
States,  it  has  been  gradually  increasing  during  the 
past  ten  years;  and  at  the  same  time  the  price  of 
foodstuff  has  been  gradually  increasing. 

The  Nation's  Problem.  Although  corn  is  cul- 
tivated in  every  state  of  the  union,  two  thirds  of  the 
total  amount  produced  in  America  is  raised  in  the 
seven  states,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Missouri, 
Ohio,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas,  with  Illinois  and  Iowa 
as  the  leading  states.  As  these  Western  States  could 


The  Last  American  Frontiers 


249 


produce  this  cereal  so  abundantly,  the  states  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  to  some  extent  lost  interest  in  its 
cultivation,  preferring  to  devote  their  labor  to  the 
cultivation  of  other  crops  and  exchange  with  the 
farmers  of  the  West.  In  the  New  England  States 
farming  even  declined,  and  the  emphasis  was  placed 
on  manufacturing.  Thus,  after  the  development  of 
the  steamboat,  the  railroad,  and  the  cotton  factory, 
and  the  invention  of  the  reaper  and  other  labor- 
saving  devices,  the  states  along  the  Atlantic  coast 
became  dependent  upon  the  West  for  their  food. 
With  the  production  of  corn  centralized  in  a  few 
states,  unfavorable  weather  conditions  were  likely  to 


Copyright  by  Underwood  *  Underwood.  N.  Y. 


One  of  the  great  corn  fields  on  the  plains  of  eastern  Kansas 


250 


The  Story  of  Corn 


I       I  Lest  than  jo  bit.  per  s<j.  mile 
E33  jo  tajoo  bu.  per  sq.  mile 
MM  joo  to  3^00  bu.  per  sq.  milt 
E^  2joo  bu.persq.  mile  and  over 


at'LF 


MKXICO 


The  production  of  corn  in  the  United  States 

diminish  the  yield  considerably  in  any  one  year  and 
endanger  the  food  supply  of  America.  Such  unfavor- 
able weather  conditions  did  prevail  in  1909,  and  the 
per  capita  production  of  that  year  fell  far  below  the 
average,  the  yield  per  acre  being  even  lower  than 
that  for  1880.  Yet  since  1880  we  have  been  looking 
to  this  section  to  supply  the  seaboard  and  Europe 
with  corn.  By  1900  the  production  in  America  was 
not  keeping  pace  with  the  demands  of  a  growing 
population.  The  nation  had  no  longer  such  vast 
areas  of  rich  lands  in  newly  formed  states.  But  as 
population  increased  the  supply  of  corn  must  increase. 
Where  should  this  increasing  supply  come  from? 

The  Nation  turned  to  the  South.  Back  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  where  the  first  Jamestown  colony 
had  cleared  the  land  and  planted  the  first  cornfields 
the  word  was  carried.  South  Carolina  and  Georgia 


The  Last  American  Frontiers  257 

were  then  producing  only  ten  bushels  to  the  acre, 
Alabama  thirteen,  Mississippi  fifteen,  North  Carolina 
seventeen,  and  Louisiana  nineteen  bushels.  The 
states  that  had  produced  an  abundance  of  food  in 
1860  had  been  impoverished  by  the  Civil  War.  At 
the  close  of  that  great  strife  they  strove  to  regain 
their  wealth  by  the  prqduction  of  cotton.  At  that 
time  cotton  was  high  and  food  cheap  in  the  West. 
But  in  the  nineties,  when  the  price  of  cotton  went 
down  to  the  bare  cost  of  production,  the  South  had 
little  money  with  which  to  buy  food.  Many  farmers 
were  facing  financial  ruin. 

The  nation  said  of  the  South,  "This  section  of 
the  country  is  being  impoverished  because  it  does 
not  produce  its  own  food  supply."  Experiment 
stations,  agricultural  colleges,  and  the  teaching  of 
agriculture  in  the  schools  were  beginning  to  produce 
their  effect  when  the  national  Department  of  Agri- 
culture turned  its  attention  to  the  South.  Then 
began  the  corn-club  movement  which  is  known  in 
every  state  where  corn  is  cultivated. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

FARMERS'  DEMONSTRATION  WORK  AND  THE  CORN- 
CLUB  MOVEMENT 

The  Problem.  It  became  quite  evident  when  the 
last  prairie  state  was  settled  and  the  population  was 
pouring  into  the  grassy  plains  beyond  the  corn  belt 
that  the  center  of  the  food  supply  could  not  move 
much  farther  westward.  As  the  population  con- 
tinued to  increase  faster  than  the  increase  in  the 
production  of  corn,  it  became  evident  that  more  land 
must  be  devoted  to  raising  food,  and  that  the  old 
lands  must  be  made  more  productive.  But  where 
were  more  lands  to  be  found? 

The  South  was  largely  an  agricultural  section, 
and  in  1910  nearly  half  of  the  farming  population 
of  the  United  States  lived  in  the  sixteen  Southern 
States.  This  half  of  the  farming  population  was 
living  on  land  that  was  not  producing  as  much  food 
in  1890  as  it  had  been  in  1850,  though  the  population 
had  nearly  doubled.  Some  of  the  Southern  States 
were  producing  an  average  of  only  ten  bushels  of 
corn  to  the  acre.  The  best  lands  of  the  southern 
coastal  plain  were  planted  in  cotton;  but  even  the 
corn  lands  of  the  piedmont  sections  were  decreasing 
in  fertility.  It  was  evident  to  the  national  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  that  if  the  South  could  pro- 
duce its  own  food  supply  it  would  add  at  least  five 

252 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work  253 

hundred  million  bushels  of  corn  annually  to  the 
nation's  wealth. 

Cotton  was  still  king  in  the  South.  In  the  pied- 
mont sections  of  the  Southern  States  the  cotton 
factory  was  drawing  the  laborers  from  the  farms, 
and  thousands  of  tenants  and  many  landowners 
gave  up  their  land  and  sought  employment  in  the 
factory  for  themselves  and  their  wives  and  children. 
The  best  agricultural  skill  was  devoted  to  raising 
cotton  or  tobacco,  while  the  corn  in  many  sections 
was  carelessly  planted  and  indifferently  cultivated. 
As  a  result  the  South  was  not  producing  more  than 
half  its  food,  and  was  buying  the  remainder  from 
the  fields  of  the  West.  When  the  price  of  cotton 
dropped,  in  1897,  to  less  than  five  cents  a  pound,  it 
was  a  heavy  burden  that  fell  on  the  South,  and  the 
problem,  how  could  the  South  grow  its  own  food 
supply  and  at  the  same  time  raise  sufficient  cotton 
for  the  world's  need,  was  fairly  presented.  This 
question  was  answered  largely  by  one  man,  who  has 
been  called  the  "Missionary  Bishop  of  American 
Agriculture. ' '  His  work  has  been  referred  to  as  " the 
greatest  single  piece  of  constructive  educational 
work  in  this  or  any  age." 

Seaman  A.  Knapp.  While  the  South  was  engaged 
in  one  of  the  most  destructive  wars  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  a  war  which  was  to  break  up  the  old 
plantation  system  and  entirely  change  the  methods 
of  cultivating  the  land,  a  young  man  from  New 
York  State,  following  the  westward  migration,  moved 
into  the  new  state  of  Iowa,  This  young  man  was 


254 


The  Story  of  Corn 


Seaman  A.  Knapp.     He  was  born  in  Essex  County, 
New  York,  December  16,  1833.     It  was  his  purpose 

to  become  a 
teacher,  and 
after  graduating 
from  Union  Col- 
lege, Schenec- 
tady,  New  York, 
he  entered  his 
chosen  profes- 
sion. But  fail- 
ing health  caused 
him  to  change 
his  plan,  and  in 
1865  he  took  the 
advice  of  Horace 
Greeley,  so  often 
given  to  young 

' 

men  OI  that  day, 
"  G  O  W^  e  S  t 


From  States  Relation  Service,  U.  8.  Dept.  Aft. 

Dr.  Seaman  A.  Knapp,  the  "Missionary 
Bishop  of  American  Agriculture" 


young  man,  and  grow  up  with  the  country." 
He  went  to  Vinton,  Iowa,  at  the  age  of  thirty-two, 
and  settled  on  a  farm,  where  he  learned  how  to 
produce  corn  and  to  breed  successfully  Shorthorn 
cattle  and  Berkshire  hogs.  He  introduced  heavy 
draft  horses  to  his  community  and  helped  to  organize 
the  first  live-stock  association  in  the  state.  He 
experimented  with  improved  machinery  and  labor- 
saving  devices,  and  proved  the  value  of  seed  selection 
in  increasing  the  yield  of  corn.  A  few  years  after 
he  settled  in  Iowa  he  met  another  farmer  named 


Farmers1  Demonstration  Work  255 

James  Wilson,  who  afterwards  became  the  Secretary 
of  Agriculture  of  the  United  States,  and  together 
they  led  the  movement  for  agricultural  reform  in 
their  state.  Dr.  Knapp  organized  and  edited  The 
Western  Stock  Journal  and  Farm,  and  later  became 
professor  of  agriculture,  and  finally  president,  of  the 
Iowa  State  College.  But  again  his  health  failed, 
and  he  was  forced  to  give  up  college  work. 

This  time  he  turned  his  face  to  the  South.  After 
organizing  a  great  development  company,  he  bought 
for  it  a  million  acres  of  land  in  southwestern  Louisi- 
ana, and  sent  the  following  invitation  all  over  the 
Northwest:  "Come  South,  young  man,  and  grow 
up  with  the  country."  In  Louisiana  and  Texas  he 
conducted  demonstrations  in  rice  growing  and 
diversified  farming  for  the  benefit  of  native  farmers 
and  immigrants.  In  1898  his  old  friend  James 
Wilson,  having  become  Secretary  of  Agriculture, 
selected  Dr.  Knapp  to  visit  China,  Japan,  and  the 
Philippines  to  make  investigation  in  rice  growing. 
Four  years  later  he  was  again  sent  to  the  Orient 
and  to  Europe  to  study  agricultural  methods. 

Farmers'  Cooperative  Demonstration  Work.  In 
1902,  while  Dr.  Knapp  was  studying  farm  conditions 
and  agricultural  methods  abroad,  the  Mexican  boll 
weevil  appeared  in  Texas.  Its  ravages  were  so 
severe  that  many  people  thought  Texas  would  soon 
cease  to  be  a  great  cotton-producing  state.  Tenant 
farmers  abandoned  their  growing  crops;  owners  in 
many  places  were  disheartened ;  most  direful  results 
were  prophesied;  and  a  condition  of  fear  and  panic 


256  The  Story  of  Corn 

hovered  over  the  boll  weevil  territory.  In  1903, 
Secretary  Wilson  sent  Dr.  Knapp  to  Texas  to  study 
this  boll  weevil  section.  His  first  work  was  to 
organize  the  farmers  of  the  community.  This 
organization,  begun  in  such  a  small  way,  is  known 
to-day  as  the  Farmers'  Cooperative  Demonstration 
Work,  and  is  the  greatest  agricultural  force  in  the 
South. 

The  demonstration  work  began  on  a  small  farm 
near  Terrell,  Texas,  where  neighboring  farmers  met 
Dr.  Knapp  in  field  meetings.  At  the  close  of  the 
year  he  had  proved  to  them  that  cotton  could  be 
grown  in  spite  of  the  boll  weevil.  So  successful 
was  his  work  that  he  was  urged  to  extend  his  methods 
throughout  the  whole  country  devastated  by  the 
pest.  The  next  year,  having  at  his  disposal  funds 
furnished  by  Congress  and  local  business  men,  he 
appointed  a  few  agents  and  began  to  organize  differ- 
ent counties  in  Texas.  The  work  soon  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  entire  country.  Congress  enlarged 
its  appropriation,  local  aid  was  increased,  and  the 
work  was  extended  into  Louisiana  and  Mississippi. 

In  fighting  the  boll  weevil  Dr.  Knapp  taught  the 
farmers  the  value  of  crop  rotation,  careful  seed 
selection,  and  proper  planting  and  plowing.  New 
methods  of  farming  were  the  result.  A  larger  yield 
of  corn  due  to  crop  rotation  came  from  every  section 
that  Dr.  Knapp  visited.  The  boll  weevil  spread 
from  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Mississippi  into  Okla- 
homa, Arkansas,  and  Alabama.  But  Dr.  Knapp 
was  greater  than  the  weevil,  and  soon  many  planters 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work 


257 


in  the  states  which  the  boll  weevil  had  entered  pro- 
duced not  only  more  cotton  but  also  more  food- 
stuffs than  before.  In  a  few  years  this  great  work 
had  covered  the  entire  South,  had  employed  a  force 
of  a  thousand  agents,  and  had  an  enrollment  of  a 
hundred  thousand  farmers,  besides  seventy-five 


From  States  Relation  Service,  U.  8.  Dept.  ACT. 

"Seed  corn  day."     The  farmers  have  brought  their  best  ears  to  the 

demonstration  agent,  who  will  instruct  them  in  selecting 

ears  for  next  year's  planting 

thousand  boys  in  the  corn  clubs  and  twenty-five 
thousand  girls  in  the  canning  clubs. 

The  old  plantations  of  the  South  were  beginning 
to  take  on  a  new  life.  Those  worn-out  lands  that 
had  first  raised  corn  for  the  pioneers,  before  the 
West  was  opened,  now  felt  the  touch  of  a  master, 
and  a  new  era  was  dawning  in  the  South.  Every 
state  began  to  show  an  increase  in  the  average  corn 


258 


The  Story  of  Corn 


production  per  acre,  and  every  state  was  learning 
this  lesson  which  Dr.  Knapp  taught  wherever  he 
went — that  it  is  the  business  of  the  farmer  first  to 
make  his  living  on  the  farm,  and  that  it  is  false 
economy  to  raise  only  a  money  crop  and  then  expect 
to  buy  corn  in  a  distant  state.  He  taught  the 
southern  farmer  not  only  how  to  raise  cotton  and 

corn  but  also  how  to 
find  out  the  cost  of 
his  crop  and  whether 
he  was  making  or 
losing  money.  He 
said,  "Agriculture 
may  be  divided  into 
eight  parts;  one 
eighth  is  science, 
three  eighths  is  art, 
and  four  eighths  is 
business  manage- 
ment." Dr.  Knapp 
discussed  the  eco- 

Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall  .  r        , 

Florida  corn.     The  result  of  new          nomiCS  Ot  the   Sltua- 
methods  in  farming  tion  with  merchants 

and  bankers.  He  showed  them  that  the  successful 
farmer  is  not  a  one-crop  man — that  to  make  his  farm 
pay  he  should  not  only  raise  corn  and  live  stock, 
but  should  grow  crops  of  cotton  which  would  bring 
him  in  ready  money.  Then  he  would  be  able  to 
purchase  not  merely  the  bare  necessities  of  life,  as 
heretofore,  but  also  the  things  that  make  for  com- 
fort and  even  for  luxury. 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work  2$g 

Boys'  Corn  Clubs.     In  the  course  of  his  work  Dr. 

Knapp  saw  that  it  was  an  easy  matter  to  interest  the 
schoolboys  of  the  South  in  practical  agriculture.  He 
learned  that  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith,  then  Superintendent 
of  Public  Education  in  Holmes  County,  Mississippi, 
had  in  1907  organized  the  schoolboys  of  that  county 
into  corn  clubs,  and  that  they  were  already  making 
some  remarkable  demonstrations  in  corn  production. 
This  idea  of  the  corn  clubs  for  schoolboys  had  its 
beginning  several  years  before  this  in  the  North- 
west, but  when  the  idea  was  introduced  into  the 
South  the  effect  was  at  once  noticeable.  Super- 
intendent Smith  was  having  each  boy  cultivate  an 
acre  of  land  at  home  under  his  direction.  The 
remarkable  showing  made  by  these  boys  gave  Dr. 
Knapp  an  idea,  and  during  the  next  year  corn  clubs 
were  organized  in  several  counties  of  Mississippi. 
The  first  efforts  to  enlist  the  boys  of  the  public 
schools  were  so  successful  that  in  1909  Dr.  Knapp 
began  a  systematic  effort  to  organize  a  few  counties 
in  every  southern  state.  During  that  year  10,543 
boys  were  enrolled.  In  the  next  year  nearly  fifty 
thousand  boys  joined  the  clubs. 

One  South  Carolina  boy,  Jerry  Moore,  following 
Dr.  Knapp's  instructions,  astounded  not  only  the 
South  but  the  nation  and  even  the  world  by  his 
marvelous  record.  He  produced  228!  bushels  of 
corn  on  one  acre,  and  this  was  in  a  state  whose 
average  yield  to  the  acre  in  1880  had  been  only 
ten  bushels,  although  the  average  for  the  United 
States  was  twenty-eight  bushels  in  1880  and  twenty- 


260 


The  Story  of  Corn 


seven   in    1910.     When    these   two   amounts,    228! 
and  ten,  are  placed  side  by  side,  and  it  is  really 


From  Bulletin  "A"-76.  U.  8.  Dept.  A«r. 

Jerry   Moore,   the  fifteen-year-old  South   Carolina   boy  who  in 

igio  set  the  world's  record  by  raising  2s8\  bushels 

of  corn  on  one  acre 

understood  that  they  represent  the  production 
of  two  acres  of  ordinary  land  in  the  same  state 
before  and  after  Dr.  Knapp's  magic  touch,  it  is 
easy  to  see  what  his  work  in  the  South  meant. 
This  was  perhaps  the  greatest  yield  of  foodstuff 
to  the  acre  that  the  world  had  ever  seen.  Many 
farmers  of  the  South  did  not  produce  that  amount 
on  twenty-five  acres  of  land.  Through  the  boys' 
corn  clubs  the  South  learned  the  astounding  truth 
that  one  acre  of  land,  well  cultivated  under  favorable 
conditions,  will  yield  corn  enough  both  for  the  use 
of  a  whole  family  for  an  entire  year  and  for  the  feed 
of  a  horse,  cows,  hogs,  and  poultry. 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work  261 

In  1911,  when  Dr.  Knapp  died,  the  corn  clubs  had 
extended  into  every  southern  state  and  many  other 
states  of  the  Union. 

In  that  year  sixty  thousand  boys  of  the  South 
entered  the  contest  conducted  by  the  corn  clubs. 
Although  the  weather  conditions  were  not  favor- 
able, as  in  the  past  years  the  records  made  by 
the  boys  were  none  the  less  remarkable.  The  fol- 
lowing account  shows  what  some  of  these  boys 
accomplished. 

The  Remarkable  Results.  The  national  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  report  says:  "Perhaps  there 
have  never  been  three  better  records  than  those  of 
Junius  Hill,  Bennie  Beeson,  and  Ben  Leath.  Junius 
Hill  produced  2123  bushels  at  8.6  cents  per  bushel; 
Bennie  Beeson,  2271^  at  14  cents  per  bushel;  and 
Ben  Leath,  2144  bushels  at  14.2  cents.  ...  It 
is  noteworthy,  also,  that  hundreds  of  other  boys  in 
the  corn  clubs  throughout  the  South  did  nearly  as 
well.  .  .  .  The  following  facts  will  give  some 
idea  of  the  records  made :  Fifty-two  boys  in  Georgia 
received  diplomas,  signed  by  the  governor  and  other 
officials,  for  producing  more  than  100  bushels  per 
acre  apiece  at  an  average  cost  of  less  than  30  cents 
per  bushel;  21  Georgia  club  members  from  the 
seventh  congressional  district  alone  grew  2,641 
bushels  at  an  average  cost  of  23  cents  per  bushel; 
19  boys  in  Gordon  County,  Georgia,  averaged  90 
bushels,  10  of  them  making  1,058  bushels.  The 
10  boys  who  stood  highest  in  Georgia  averaged  169.9 
bushels  and  made  a  net  profit  of  over  $100  each, 


262  'The  Story  of  Corn 

besides  prizes  won.  In  Alabama  100  boys  averaged 
97  bushels  at  an  average  cost  of  27  cents.  In  Mon- 
roe County,  Alabama,  25  boys  averaged  78  bushels. 
In  Yazoo  County,  Mississippi,  21  boys  averaged 
116  bushels  at  an  average  cost  of  19.7  cents.  In 
Lee  County,  Mississippi,  17  boys  averaged  82  bush- 
els at  an  average  cost  of  21  cents.  Sixty-five  boys 
in  Mississippi  averaged  109.9  bushels  at  an  average 
cost  of  25  cents.  Twenty  Mississippi  boys  averaged 
140.6  bushels  at  an  average  cost  of  23  cents.  Ninety- 
two  boys  in  Louisiana  grew  5,791  bushels  on  92 
acres;  10  of  these  boys  went  above  100  bushels, 
although  the  weather  conditions  were  very  unfavor- 
able in  that  state.  In  North  Carolina  100  boys 
averaged  99  bushels.  In  the  same  state  432  boys 
averaged  63  bushels.  In  Buncombe  County,  North 
Carolina,  10  boys  averaged  88  bushels.  In  Sussex 
County,  Virginia,  16  boys  averaged  82  bushels. 
Fifteen  boys  in  the  state  of  Tennessee  produced 
127  bushels  each  to  the  acre." 

Suppose  we  compare  these  results  with  the  average 
production  in  the  same  states:  Alabama,  nineteen 
bushels;  Georgia,  fifteen;  Mississippi,  twenty-one; 
Louisiana,  thirty;  North  Carolina,  nineteen;  Vir- 
ginia, twenty -nine;  and  Tennessee,  twenty-six. 

In  1890  the  South  produced  barely  one  fifth  of  the 
corn  of  the  country.  In  1912  it  was  producing  over 
one  third.  The  power  that  this  increased  corn  pro- 
duction gives  the  Southern  States  is  manifest.  In 
addition  to  producing  the  world's  supply  of  cotton 
the  South  is  learning  from  the  teaching  of  Dr.  Knapp 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work 


263 


and  others  engaged  in  the  demonstration  work  to 
produce  its  own  breadstuff,  meats,  dairy  products, 


From  States  Relation  Service,  U.  8.  Dcpt.  Agr. 

A  field  meeting  of  corn-club  members  for  the  purpose  of 
selecting  corn  for  seed 

and  domestic  animals  of  all  kinds.  However,  the 
South  still  buys  annually  three  million  bushels  of 
foodstuff  from  the  West. 

How  the  Corn  Clubs  were  Organized.  The 
national  Department  of  Agriculture,  with  the 
assistance  of  the  General  Education  Board,  has 
placed  in  each  state  a  director  of  corn  clubs  whose 
business  it  is  to  organize  clubs,  instruct  the  boys,  and 
supervise  the  planting  and  harvesting  of  the  grain. 

In  many  of  the  Southern  States  the  corn  clubs 
have  become  a  regular  part  of  the  public-school 
system.  In  order  to  keep  the  boys  interested, 


264 


The  Story  of  Corn 


valuable  prizes  of  various  kinds  are  offered.     These 
as  a  rule  come  from  the  citizens  of  the  section  in 


From  States  Relation  Service,  U.  8.  Dept.  ACT. 

Southern  corn-club  prize  winners  at  Washington,  D.C.     Each  boy 
was  awarded  a  diploma  of  merit  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 

which  the  club  is  located.  For  example,  one 
thousand  dollars  in  gold  was  offered  in  Oklahoma 
to  the  one  hundred  twenty  boys  making  the  best 
records  in  the  state,  and  in  every  county  throughout 
the  South  where  clubs  were  organized,  merchants, 
farmers,  manufacturers,  and  school  teachers  offered 
prizes  to  the  boys,  sometimes  in  money  and  some- 
times in  improved  stock.  The  National  Corn  Club 
gave  the  most  successful  contestant  in  each  state  a 
trip  to  Washington. 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work  265 

The  visit  to  Washington  was  worth  much  to  the 
boys  and  to  the  corn-club  movement.  The  boys 
spent  a  whole  week  at  the  capital.  They  were  shown 
Mount  Vernon,  the  government  buildings,  and 
other  points  of  interest.  They  were  received  at  the 
White  House  by  President  Taft,  who  talked  with 
them  about  their  work  in  the  clubs.  Before  leaving 
for  home  they  were  entertained  by  Mr.  Wilson, 
Secretary  of  Agriculture,  who  awarded  to  each  a 
diploma  bearing  the  seal  of  the  Department  and  the 
signature  of  the  Secretary.  In  nearly  all  the 
Southern  States  diplomas  signed  by  the  governor 
and  the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
are  given  to  the  boys  who  make  as  much  as  seventy- 
five  bushels  per  acre  at  a  reasonable  cost  of  produc- 
tion. Prizes  worth  more  than  forty  thousand 
dollars  were  offered  in  the  six  hundred  counties 
organized,  but  those  most  valued  were  the  diplomas 
issued  by  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  and  by  the 
governors  of  the  different  states. 

Result  of  the  Farm  Demonstration  Work.  The 
one  great  lesson  derived  from  the  farm  demonstra- 
tion work  in  the  South  was  proof  that  the  Southern 
States  are  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  corn 
and  that  the  southern  farmer  can  and  should  grow 
enough  corn  for  every  possible  need  of  the  farm. 
The  work  of  the  boys'  corn  clubs  has  proved  that  it 
is  more  profitable  in  the  South  to  produce  corn  and 
meat  than  to  buy  these  absolutely  necessary  foods, 
even  with  cotton  selling  at  fifteen  cents  a  pound. 

It  has  been  demonstrated,  furthermore,  that  the 


266 


low  yield  of  corn  in  the  South  is  due  largely  to  the 
lack  of  care  in  selecting  seed  and  preparing  seed  beds 


From  States  Relation  Service.  U.  8.  Dept.  ACT. 

Boys'  Corn-Club  Exhibit  at  the  state  fair,  Richmond,  Va. 

before  planting.  The  prizes  offered  were  merely 
for  the  purpose  of  arousing  and  maintaining  interest, 
while  efforts  were  made  to  instruct  the  boys  in  the 
following  points  of  farming:  deep  fall  plowing, 
pulverization  of  the  soil,  careful  seed  selection, 
suitable  fertilizer,  intensive  cultivation,  increase  of 
humus,  economical  use  of  more  horse  power  and 
better  implements,  and  the  keeping  of  farm  accounts. 
Corn  is  a  semi-tropical  plant,  and,  other  things 
being  equal,  it  should  thrive  better  in  the  Southern 
States  than  in  the  Northern  States.  As  we  have 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work  267 

seen  in  a  previous  chapter,  the  South  falls  far  be- 
hind every  other  section  of  the  country  where  any 
serious  attempt  is  made  to  cultivate  this  grain. 
Nevertheless,  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  with 
proper  preparation  and  cultivation  as  much  corn  to 
the  acre  can  be  produced  in  the  South  as.  has  been 
grown  heretofore  in  the  corn  belt. 

Business  Management.  Years  ago  commercial 
schools  were  established  throughout  the  world  for 
the  purpose  of  training  the  banker,  the  merchant, 
or  any  other  business  man  engaged  in  commercial 
and  trading  pursuits,  in  the  art  of  business  manage- 
ment peculiar  to  his  occupation.  Each  particular 
business  has  a  fairly  accurate  method  of  keeping 
accounts  of  the  buying  and  selling,  of  the  profits 
and  losses,  of  the  wastes  and  checks,  and  from 
these  accounts  one  is  able  to  tell  whether  the  busi- 
ness is  gaining  or  losing.  Within  recent  years  the 
leading  universities  of  the  corn  country  have  estab- 
lished departments  which  give  instruction  in  the  art 
of  business  management  of  the  farm.  Dr.  Knapp 
taught  the  South  that  good  business  management 
is  responsible  for  about  half  the  prosperity  of  the 
farmer.  It  is  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  far- 
mers who  have  as  much  skill  in  buying  and  selling 
as  have  the  merchant  and  banker.  The  farmer  does 
not  keep  up  so  well  with  the  world's  prices  of  his 
commodities,  with  the  cost  of  transportation,  and 
with  supply  and  demand.  It  is  too  often  the  case 
that  the  farmer  does  not  know  whether  he  is  losing 
or  making  money  by  his  methods  of  cultivating  the 


268 


The  Story  of  Corn 


soil.  This  absence  of  business  management  has 
accounted  in  large  measure  for  the  poor  lands  and 
the  shiftlessness  of  the  tenant  class.  It  also  accounts 
for  the  abandoned  farms  and  the  rush  to  the  cities. 
Looking  still  farther,  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  see 
that  to  a  great  extent  it  accounts  for  the  reduction 
in  food  supply  and  for  the  high  cost  of  living. 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

A  model  dairy  farm  in  the  South.     The  result  of  increased  corn 
production  and  good  business  management 

In  1912  corn  was  selling  in  South  Dakota  for 
forty-one  cents  a  bushel  and  in  Iowa  and  Illinois 
for  fifty  cents  a  bushel.  In  South  Carolina  it  was 
bought  for  about  ninety-six  cents  a  bushel  and  in 
Georgia  for  ninety-two  cents  a  bushel.  As  the 
freight  rate  from  the  Northwestern  States  to  the 
Southeastern  States  is  only  about  twenty  cents  a 
bushel,  it  can  easily  be  seen  that  the  consumer  in 
South  Carolina  paid  to  the  middleman  who  bought 


Farmers'  Demonstration  Work  269 

the  corn  for  him  almost  as  much  as  the  corn  was 
worth  in  the  fields  where  it  was  produced. 

In  addition  to  buying  and  selling,  good  business 
management  on  the  farm  must  consider  crop  rota- 
tion, fertilizer,  freight  rates,  and  the  best  machinery. 
The  farmer  must  understand  why  good  roads  are 
so  valuable  to  his  community  and  why  poor  roads 
are  an  expense  because  of  the  care  of  his  horses,  the 
wear  on  his  vehicles,  and  the  cost  of  getting  to 
market.  He  must  consider  the  influence  of  the 
public  school  in  his  community  and  of  the  general 
culture  level  of  his  neighbors.  Ignorance  is  the 
greatest  barrier  to  progress,  and  nowhere  is  it  so 
destructive  as  in  rural  communities,  for  here  it 
strikes  at  the  very  heart  of  the  nation,  and  the 
decline  of  the  farms,  the  diminishing  food  supply,  and 
the  high  cost  of  living  are  indications  that  ignorance 
is  still  abroad  in  the  land. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

i 

VARIETIES  OF  CORN 

Favorable  conditions  for  Corn  Production.  While 
Dr.  Knapp  was  teaching  the  South  the  value  of  corn 
production  and  how  to  increase  the  yield,  other 
nations  of  the  globe  were  likewise  studying  this 
American  grain.  The  world  had  learned  this 
fact,  that  similar  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are 
capable  of  producing  similar  plants.  After  Chicago 
became  the  center  of  the  world's  food  supply  and 
Europe  began  to  depend  more  and  more  upon  the 


From  Dept.  Aur.  and  Labor,  North  Dakota 

A    North   Dakota  corn  field.     Rich,   loamy  soil  and   carefully 

selected  seed  have  made  corn  a  profitable  crop  even  in 

the  northernmost  counties  of  this  state 

food  of  America,  the  different  nations  of  the  world 
began  to  make  a  more  thorough  and  scientific  study 

270 


Varieties  of  Corn 

of  soil  and  plants.  It  was  discovered  that  corn 
grows  best  in  a  rich,  loamy  soil  in  a  climate  of 
abundant  sunshine  and  rainfall.  A  region  where  the 
summer  is  comparatively  long,  from  four  and  one- 
half  to  seven  months ;  where  the  possibilities  of  frost 
during  the  crop's  growth  are  reduced  to  a  minimum; 
where  the  soil  is  rich  in  the  elements  of  plant  food 
and  is  not  too  stiff  and  compact  to  allow  of  ready 
drying  after  rains  by  free  drainage;  where  the 
summer  rains,  though  copious,  are  not  too  heavy  and 
frequent — such  a  region  is  ideal  for  the  cultivation 
of  maize.  All  these  conditions  are  found  in  varying 
degrees  throughout  the  United  States  save  in  the  far 
western  portion,  where  the  rainfall  is  small.  The 
same  favorable  conditions  are  found  likewise  in 
many  sections  of  South  America,  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  Australia,  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

Extent  of  its  Cultivation.  Maize  is  the  only 
cereal  which  was  introduced  into  the  Old  World 
from  the  New.  Being  a  very  productive  crop  it 
yields,  under  equally  favorable  conditions,  fully 
twice  as  much  grain  to  the  acre  as  does  wheat.  Its 
cultivation,  therefore,  spread  very  rapidly  in  the 
tropical  and  the  warmer  temperate  parts  of  the 
Old  World.  Shortly  after  Columbus  discovered 
America  it  was  introduced  into  Spain  and  Portugal, 
and  its  cultivation  spread  into  Italy  and  southern 
France.  In  Portugal  it  is  mixed  with  rye  and  is 
the 'chief  .bread  food  of  the  peasant  or  poorer  class, 
and  for  several  centuries  the  Italians  have  been 
living  chiefly  on  polenta,  a  sort  of  corn-meal  mush. 


Varieties  of  Corn  273 

There  is  no  other  cereal  that  can  be  produced  in  so 
many  different  climates  and  so  many  different  kinds 
of  soil  and  yield  so  abundantly.  Its  cultivation 
has  spread  to  Egypt,  where  it  forms  the  staple  food 
of  the  peasantry.  There  the  same  soil  produces 
three  crops  a  year — in  the  autumn  maize  is  cul- 
tivated, and  after  being  followed  by  wheat  in  winter 
the  same  land  produces  cotton  or  rice  in  the  summer. 
The  Egyptians  use  the  entire  plant,  for  in  that  warm 
climate  the  large  and  very  hard  stalk  is  used  in 
building  houses. 

It  was  discovered  during  the  last  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  that  Roumania,  possessing  simi- 
lar soil  and  climate  to  that  found  in  many  portions 
of  the  United  States,  could  produce  corn  more 
profitably  than  wheat.  As  a  result  Roumania  has 
become  the  leading  corn  country  of  Europe.  About 
seventy  per  cent  of  the  people  of  that  country 
engage  in  agriculture,  and  corn  is  not  only  the 
leading  crop  but  is  becoming  the  leading  food, 
likewise.  Roumania  ranks  third  in  the  export  of 
that  cereal.  The  cultivation  has  spread  to  Thessaly 
in  Greece,  to  Hungary  and  the  country  around  the 
Danube,  and  to  many  sections  of  Russia. 

Maize  has  been  introduced  into  Asia,  also.  Turkey 
and  parts  of  India  and  China,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  the  uplands  of  the  Philippine  Islands  are  learning 
the  value  of  this  great  American  cereal.  It  has 
recently  been  introduced  into  South  Africa,  and  as 
the  demand  has  increased  at  home  for  the  American 
crop,  the  European  nations  that  have  colonies  in 


274 


The  Story  of  Corn 


South  Africa  are  interested  in  efforts  to  introduce 
Indian  corn  into  that  section  of  the  globe.  It  is 
already  predicted  that  in  the  near  future  Africa  will 
supply  Europe  with  this  food.  Because  of  unfavor- 
able climatic  conditions,  England  cannot  raise  Indian 
corn ;  but  the  English  government  is  active  in  extend- 
ing the  cultivation  throughout  her  South  African  col- 
onies. Certain  sections  of  Australia  and  South  Africa 
have  already  been  exporting  great  quantities  of 
corn  to  Europe,  and  it  has  become  the  leading  crop 
in  some  parts  of  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  A  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

Grain  elevators  on  the  water  front  in  the  Argentine.     Elevators 
are'  gradually  replacing  the  canalitas 

In  South  America  it  is  an  important  crop  of  the 
Argentine  and  parts  of  Chile,  and  is  cultivated  in 


Varieties  of  Corn  275 

nearly  every  South  American  country.  It  is  the 
leading  crop  of  Mexico  and  Central  America,  and 
the  natives  of  the  West  Indies  have  depended  almost 
entirely  upon  it  since  long  before  the  days  of  Colum- 
bus. Although  originally  a  tropical  plant,  it  is  so 
easily  adjusted  to  various  kinds  of  soils  and  climates 
that  certain  varieties  are  now  grown  in  the  cold  lands 
of  Alaska,  Russia,  and  China. 

Varieties  of  Corn.  It  is  said  that  more  than  three 
hundred  distinct  varieties  of  corn  are  in  existence 
to-day.  Some  come  to  maturity  in  two  months, 
others  require  seven  months;  some  are  almost  as 
many  feet  high  as  others  are  inches  high,  and  some 
have  kernels  eleven  times  larger  than  others.  The 
varieties  vary  in  shape  and  size  of  ears,  in  color  of 
the  grain, — which  may  be  white,  yellow,  red,  purple, 
or  striped, — and  also  in  physical  characteristics. 
These  many  varieties,  however,  are  reduced  to  six 
general  classes,  which  are  grown  primarily  for  the 
grain,  and  the  distinguishing  characteristics  are 
based  on  the  grains  or  kernels. 

1.  Flint    Corn.     This    variety    is    cultivated    in 
Canada,  northern  United  States,  and  in  the  colder 
regions  of  the  temperate  zones.     The  grain,  as  a 
rule,  is  shorter,  rounder,  and  smoother  than  the  grain 
commonly  seen  throughout  this  nation.     The  stalks 
are  usually  small,  and  the  ears  are  borne  near  the 
ground.     The  flint  corn  matures  quickly  and  is  best 
adapted  to  regions  where  the  summers  are  short. 

2.  Dent  Corn.     Dent  corn  is  the  kind  commonly 
grown  in  the  United  States  and  in  the  milder  climates 


276  The  Story  of  Corn 

of  the  temperate  zones.  But  the  varieties  differ 
widely  in  the  size  of  the  plants  and  the  appearance 
of  the  ear.  Even  the  color  of  the  grain  varies 
greatly,  being  generally  white,  yellow,  or  red. 
Dent  corn  comprises  all  the  varieties  commonly 
grown  in  the  fields  of  the  United  States;  the  bulk 
of  the  American  corn,  in  fact,  is  of  this  variety. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  loosely  arranged  starch  grains, 
and  the  shrinkage  of  this  loose  starch  during  ripening 
causes  the  depression,  or  dent,  which  gives  it  its 
name.  The  grain  is  much  flattened  and  wedge- 
shaped,  and  longer  than  it  is  broad. 

j.  Sweet  Corn.  This  is  preeminently  a  garden 
vegetable,  the  ear  being  used  before  the  grain 
hardens,  when  it  is  well  filled  but  soft  and  milky. 
It  is  often  cooked  and  served  on  the  cob,  but  when 
it  is  canned  it  is  cut  from  the  cob.  Canned  sweet 
corn  is  an  important  article  of  domestic  commerce 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  plant  is 
very  small,  and  bears  many  small  ears  which  mature 
early. 

4.  Pop  Corn.     Pop  corn  is  a  variety  that  is  with- 
out the  floury  starch  so  valuable  in  other  varieties, 
hence  its  value  as  an  article  of  commerce  among 
confectioners.     When  heated  it  pops  open,  and  is 
very  pleasant  to  eat. 

5.  Soft  Corn.     This  is  the  original  variety  in  use 
by  the  Indians  when  Columbus  discovered  America, 
and  it  is  called  soft  corn  because  the  inner,  nutritive 
part  of  the  grain  is  soft  and  easily  ground.     It  was 
suited  to  the  needs  of  the  Indians  in  the  days  when 


Varieties  of  Corn 


277 


the  mortar  was  the  only  corn  mill.     This  variety  is 

not  cultivated  to  any  great  extent  in  the  United 

States  to-day. 

The   ears  are 

small,     and    the 

grains  are  usually 

small  and  round. 

6.  Pod  Corn. 
This  variety  is  a 
curiosity.  Each 
grain  is  inclosed 
in  a  small  shuck, 
and  the  whole  ear 
is  wrapped  in  an 
outer  shuck.  It 
is  believed  that 
the  original  form 
of  maize  was  similar  to  this  curious  wild  variety. 

The  Origin  of  Corn.  The  origin  of  Indian  corn 
is  unknown.  However,  like  all  other  cereals,  it 
belongs  to  the  grass  family,  and  the  theory  is  held 
by  many  that  it  is  derived  from  a  Mexican  fodder 
grass  known  as  teosinte,  a  closely  allied  plant  which, 
when  crossed  with  maize,  yields  a  maize-like  hybrid. 
Each  grain  of  the  other  cereals  is,  as  is  well  known, 
inclosed  in  a  small  shuck,  and  the  fact  that  one 
variety  of  maize,  the  pod  corn,  has  the  individual 
shuck  for  each  grain  gives  strength  to  the  belief 
that  this  was  the  original  form.  The  grain  of  other 
cereals,  however,  appears  in  the  top  of  the  plant, 
while  the  grain  of  maize  is  in  a  large  ear  on  the 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

The  wild  corn  from  which  all  varieties  of 
corn  are  supposed  to  have  developed 


278  The  Story  of  Corn 

stalk,  sometimes  near  the  ground  and  sometimes 
near  the  top  of  the  plant.  From  the  pod  corn  we 
come  to  the  soft  corn  of  the  Indians,  and  from  this 
soft  corn  we  can  trace  the  history  of  the  many 
varieties  in  existence  to-day. 

How  Varieties  are  Formed.  The  fact  that  the 
corn  plant  is  capable  of  adapting  itself  to  a  great 
variety  of  climates  and  soils  is  sufficient  to  show  that 
it  is  capable  of  providing  very  readily  a  number  of 
varieties,  since  cultivated  plants,  when  transferred 
from  one  kind  of  soil  and  climate  to  different  kinds 
of  soil  and  climate,  will  as  a  rule  form  a  different 
variety.  It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  that  chief 
among  the  agencies  in  producing  different  varieties 
of  corn  are  soil  and  climate,  since  we  could  hardly 
expect  to  find  the  same  variety  in  Alaska  that  is 
grown  in  Mexico.  Moreover,  the  very  nature  of 
the  corn  plant  subjects  it  to  ready  changes  and 
varieties.  Suppose  we  notice  the  blossoming  of  the 
corn.  Fine,  silky  threads  may  be  seen  hanging 
exposed  from  the  end  of  the  green  ear.  At  the  top 
of  the  stalk  is  the  tassel.  The  fine  pollen  dust  of 
the  tassel  is  readily  blown  about  by  the  wind  and 
sifted  on  the  silky  threads  hanging  from  the  ear  of 
the  corn.  This  pollen  dust  fertilizes  the  ear  and 
produces  the  grain.  Where  different  varieties  of 
corn  are  growing  in  the  same  field,  the  pollen  from 
the  tassel  of  one  variety  may  be  carried  by  the  wind 
or  by  insects  to  the  silky  pistils  or  threads  of  another, 
and  sometimes  even  produce  different  varieties  of 
kernels  on  the  same  ear.  So  easily  is  the  pollen 


Varieties  of  Corn 


279 


dust  carried  about,  and  so  exposed  is  the  ear  to 
receive  it,  that  the  grain  is  constantly  undergoing 
changes,  being  modified,  and  producing  new  varie- 
ties. Other  varieties  are  formed  by  selecting  the 
seed  properly.  This  method  is  used  to  such  advan- 
tage that  it  is  considered  in  a  separate  section. 


From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  415.  U.  8.  Dept.  Agr. 

A  good  method  of  seed  selection.     Ra)  s  are  taken  from  only  those  plants 

that  have  produced  heavily  under  average  conditions  and  in  close 

competition  with  less  productive  plants  in  the  same  locality 

It  is  easy  to  see,  therefore,  that  a  grain  which 
will  so  easily  form  new  varieties  and  so  readily 
adapt  itself  to  so  many  different  kinds  of  soil  and 
climate  will,  in  the  course  of  a  few  centuries,  pro- 
duce in  different  parts  of  the  world  varieties  that  are 
wholly  unlike  in  many  particulars. 

Improving  the  Variety  by  Seed  Selection.  The  one 
fundamental  principle  underlying  corn  production 


280 


The  Story  of  Corn 


and  the  improvement  of  the  variety  is  found  in 
the  proper  selection  of  seed  corn.  In  the  first 
place  the  seed  must  be  suited  to  the  locality.  Dent 
corn  is  the  common  variety  used  in  the  United  States, 

but  there  are  several 
varieties  of  this  class, 
and  it  has  been  dem- 
onstrated that  the 
proper  selection  and 
care  of  seed  corn  will 
in  itself  increase  the 
average  yield  per  acre 
by  many  bushels. 

Dr.  Knapp,  in  his 
instruction  to  south- 
ern farmers,  advised 
them  to  select  stalks 
that  are  free  from 
disease  of  every  kind 
and  are  not  in  the 
immediate  neighbor- 
hood of  diseased 
stalks.  If  a  prolific 
variety,  the  stalk 
should  have  at  least 
two  good  ears  upon 
shanks  four  or  five 
should  show  a  decided 
As  soon  as  the  corn  is 


Photograph  by  King  Prints  Co. 

Corn  smut.     In  selecting  seed  ears 

the  farmer  avoids  parts  of  the 

field  where  smut  appears 

on  the  stalks 


inches   long,    and   these 

tendency  to  turn  down. 

sufficiently  dry  it  should  be  carefully  gathered  and 

housed.     If  there  are  two  good  ears  on  the  stalk, 


Varieties  of  Corn 


281 


both  should  be  selected.  But  if  one  is  poor,  only  the 
good  one  should  be  taken.  Moreover,  only  those 
ears  that  have  the  ends  well  covered  with  a  close- 
fitting  husk  should  be  gathered  for  seed  corn,  since 


From  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  415,  U.  8.  Dept.  ACT. 

Seed  ears  strung  in  a  cool,  dry  place  as  soon  as  gathered  will  give 
a  greater  yield  than  if  stored  in  a  heap  with  the  crib  corn 

this  is  a  very  effective  protection  against  the  weevil. 
The  ears  should  be  stored  in  a  cool,  dry,  well- 
ventilated  place,  and  not  in  too  great  bulk,  so  there 
will  be  no  danger  of  heating.  But  it  should  always 
be  kept  from  freezing. 


282  The  Story  of  Corn 

According  to  reports  from  the  national  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  seed  corn  should  be  selected 


Corn  tester  or  germinator.     By  watching  these  young  plants  the 
farmer  can  judge  the  growing  qualities  of  his  seed 

in  the  South  the  last  of  August  and  in  the  North 
early  in  September,  and  no  farmer  should  permit 
October  to  pass  without  having  sufficient  seed  corn 
for  at  least  one  year's  planting  stored  where  it 
cannot  be  injured  by  unfavorable  or  unexpected 
weather.  It  has  been  proved  that  seed  corn,  sepa- 
rated from  the  corn  in  the  crib  and  put  in  a  cool,  dry 
place,  will  give  a  greater  yield  than  if  the  same  corn 
is  stored  in  a  heap  with  the  crib  corn.  This  differ- 
ence alone  in  the  treatment  of  seed  corn  increased 
the  yield  in  one  particular  instance  about  seven  per 
cent,  or  for  every  hundred  bushels  raised  the  yield 
was  increased  on  an  average  of  about  seven  bushels. 
Within  the  last  few  years  more  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  selection  of  seed  corn  in  all  states  where 
corn  is  the  leading  crop.  The  various  experiment 
stations  send  out  special  corn  trains  in  charge 
of  trained  experts  explaining  the  different  grades 


Varieties  of  Corn  283 

and  varieties  best  adapted  for  use  in  different 
localities.  The  necessity  of  having  the  right  variety 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  corn  is  planted  in  various 
sections  of  the  United  States  from  the  twentieth 
of  March  to  the  twentieth  of  May,  and  ripens  from 
September  to  October,  according  to  the  weather  and 
climate.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States 
it  matures  in  from  seventy  to  ninety  days,  growing 
from  three  to  four  feet  tall,  while  in  the  Southern 
States,  Mexico,  and  Central  America  it  sometimes 
reaches  a  height  of  twenty  feet  or  more,  and  requires 
six  months  to  mature. 

For  a  good  example  of  how  to  test  the  value  of 
seed  corn,  see  page  282. 

How  Good  Soil  improves  the  Variety.  It  is  not 
economical  to  grow  corn  on  poor  land.  The  Eastern 
States  as  well  as  the  Southern  States  have  dis- 
covered this  fact,  and  in  many  sections  of  the  South 
farmers  had  almost  ceased  to  cultivate  the  grain 
when  Dr.  Knapp  began  his  work.  But  it  was 
discovered  that  the  soil  could  be  improved,  and 
when  improved,  as  the  boys'  corn  clubs  demon- 
strated, the  land  would  yield  abundantly.  The 
corn  plant  has  no  long  tap  root,  but  it  has  a  great 
many  fibrous  roots  that  branch  out  in  every  direction 
and  fully  occupy  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  from  two  to 
four  fe^t.  The  great  body  of  its  feeding  roots, 
however,  are  found  from  four  to  eighteen  inches 
below  the  surface.  It  requires,  therefore,  a  good 
seed  bed  of  from  eight  to  ten  inches  deep,  and  this 
can  be  obtained  only  by  breaking  the  land  deep. 


284 


The  Story  of  Corn 


A  very  deep  seed  bed  well  filled  with  manure  is  of 
more  importance  in  the  South  than  in  the  North 

because  of  the  high 
temperature  and 
consequent  greater 
evaporation.  To 
make  its  largest 
yield,  corn  requires 
not  only  a  deep  seed 
bed  but  a  large 
amount  of  humus 
in  the  soil.  Conse- 
quently most  land 
needs  some  previous 
preparation,  such  as 
the  plowing  under 
of  a  green  crop  or 
the  use  of  stable 
manure.  Even  if 
the  soil  has  a  fair 
amount  of  vegetable 
matter  in  it,  good 
crops  of  cow  peas 
turned  under  in  the  fall,  or  vetch  or  crimson  clover 
turned  under  in  the  spring,  will  greatly  increase  the 
yield.  Very  poor  lands  should  not  be  planted  in 
corn.  Such  lands  planted  in  peas,  beans,  or  other 
forage  crops  will  produce  more  feed  and  at  the  same 
time  improve  rapidly  in  fertility. 

After  a  deep  seed  bed  containing  humus  is  pre- 
pared, farmers  are  advised  to  go  over  the  land  with 


From  Dept.  Soils,  Missouri  College  of  Agriculture 

Corn  raised  on   a   plot  of  ground 

that  had  not  been  treated 

-with  fertilizer 


Varieties  of  Corn 


285 


a  disk  or  section  harrow  two  or  three  times  before 
planting,  and  repeat  with  harrow  immediately  after 
planting  and  again  after  the  crop  is  up.  The  object 
sought  is  to  pulverize  the  soil  thoroughly  and  thus 
prevent  the  formation  of  any  crust  or  the  growth  of 
weeds.  If  it  is  possible  for  boys  to  cultivate  over 
two  hundred  bushels  of  corn  to  the  acre  at  a  very 
small  cost  per  bushel,  it  certainly  would  pay  the 
farmer  to  devote  all 
his  time  to  two  or 
three  acres  and 
make  them  give  up 
the  yield  necessary 
for  the  needs  of  his 
family  and  stock. 

The  Use  of  Ferti- 
lizer. The  produc- 
tive capacity  of 
practically  all  soils  in 
good  physical  con- 
dition is  measured 
by  the  available 
supply  of  three 
necessary  elements : 
phosphoric  acid, 
potash,  and  nitro- 
gen. Of  course 
there  are  many  other 
elements  that  the 
plant  takes  up  from  either  the  air  or  the  soil,  but 
these  are  the  three  that  are  soon  removed  from  the 


From  Dept.  Soiln.  Missouri  College  of  Acriculture 

Corn   raised  in   sail    treated   with 

lime,  legume,  phosphorus, 

ard  potassium 


286 


The  Story  of  Corn 


soil  unless  the  farmer  has  some  way  of  restoring  the 
amount  removed.     Professor  Cyril  G.  Hopkins,  of 


Photograph  by  Kin*  Prints  Co. 

Testing  fertilizers  for  corn  and  other  crops.     This  is  part  of  the 
work  done  for  the  farmers  at  experiment  stations 

the  University  of  Illinois,  has  demonstrated  that 
an  acre  of  corn  in  that  state  producing  a  hundred 
bushels  of  grain  will  take  from  the  soil  in  one  year 
one  hundred  forty-eight  pounds  of  nitrogen,  twenty- 
three  pounds  of  phosphorus,  and  seventy -one  pounds 
of  potash.  The  total  market  value  of  these  three 
elements  removed  from  the  soil  is  $29. 22 :  nitrogen, 
$22.20;  phosphorus,  $2.76;  and  potash,  $4.26. 

Suppose  a  piece  of  land  two  acres  in  size  when 
planted  for  the  first  time  in  corn  produces  a  hundred 
bushels.  According  to  the  above  figures,  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year  it  is  worth  nearly  thirty  dollars  less 


Varieties  of  Corn  287 

than  before  it  was  planted.  Of  course,  the  farmer 
has  received  one  hundred  bushels  of  corn,  valued  at 
about  sixty  dollars.  But  suppose  the  land  is  planted 
from  year  to  year  in  corn.  Soon  it  will  contain  an 
insufficient  amount  of  these  elements  to  produce  a 
hundred  bushels,  and  the  yield  will  be  less.  From 
this  time  on  the  land  will  degenerate  rapidly.  It 
would  have  to  be  very  rich  land  indeed  at  the  begin- 
ning to  be  worth  cultivating  at  all  after  a  period  of 
ten  or  fifteen  years. 

According  to  Professor  Hopkins 's  experiments  an 
acre  of  land  that  will  produce  one  hundred  bushels 
of  corn  would  produce  four  tons  of  clover  hay  or 
three  tons  of  cow-pea  hay  containing  the  following 
amounts  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash: 


POUNDS 

VALUE 

Nitrogen 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Potash 

4  tons  clover  hay  .  .  . 
3  tons  cow-pea  hay  . 

1  60 
130 

20 
H 

1  2O 
98 

$33.60' 
27.00 

These  two  classes  of  hay  really  take  more  from 
the  soil  than  corn,  but  the  roots  and  stubbles 
left  in  the  field  contain  more  than  is  taken  away  in 
the  hay.  Therefore,  these  crops  have  a  tendency 
to  enrich  the  soil.  If  the  second  year  the  land  is 
planted  in  leguminous  ^rops,  the  hay  is  not  quite 
so  valuable  as  the  corn,  but  the  land  is  in  better 
condition  for  raising  a  corn  crop  the  third  year. 
However,  by  planting  corn  on  the  same  land  every 
other  year,  the  necessary  elements  will  be  removed 
after  a  while,  although  it  will  take  nearly  twice  as 
long.  By  growing  legumes  with  corn  the  nitrogen 


288  The  Story  of  Corn 

content  of  the  soil  may  not  only  be  maintained  but 
enriched,  since  these  plants  have  the  power  to  draw 
nitrogen  from  the  air. 

The  same  land  planted  in  wheat  or  oats  will  take 
from  the  soil  only  about  twenty  dollars  worth  of 
these  elements.  But  the  stubble  and  straw  left  in 
the  field  return  probably  a  fifth  of  this  amount;  and 
if  these  crops  are  followed  in  the  same  year  with  a 
legume,  the  land  is  only  a  little  poorer  than  it  was 
at  the  beginning  of  the  year.  If  the  legumes  are 
plowed  under  in  a  green  state,  the  land  is  richer,  but 
the  farmer  loses  the  value  of  the  hay;  and  if  he 
would  keep  the  hay,  it  is  necessary  to  use  fertilizer 
in  order  to  keep  the  land  from  degenerating. 

It  can  thus  be  seen  how  injurious  to  land  are 
ignorant  farm  tenants.  It  requires  more  skill  to 
maintain  a  high  productivity  of  the  land  than  it 
does  to  run  a  store,  operate  a  mill,  or  make  laws 
for  a  people.  Here  ignorance  is  the  greatest  curse, 
and  it  is  the  more  damaging  because  it  takes  a 
number  of  years  to  see  the  full  effect  of  ignorance 
on  the  land. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
CORN:    THE  NATIONAL  GRAIN 

The  Value  of  Corn.  The  corn  crop  of  America  in 
any  one  year  is  the  most  valuable  asset  of  this 
nation.  When  we  say  that  it  is  worth  nearly  two 
billion  dollars  we  do  not  really  comprehend  its 
importance ;  but  it  is  sufficient  to  pay  off  the  national 
debt,  buy  all  the  gold  and  silver  mined  in  all  the 
countries  of  the  world  in  a  single  year,  and  still  leave 
a  considerable  sum.  The  entire  cotton  crop  as  a 
rule  is  only  about  half  as  valuable  as  the  corn  crop, 
and  all  the  other  crops  combined  are  worth  barely 
half  as  much.  This  is  a  great  manufacturing  age, 
but  all  the  iron  and  steel  output  of  a  single  year 
in  the  United  States  is  not  worth  nearly  so  much 
in  actual  dollars  and  cents  as  a  year's  corn  crop. 
Its  value  for  eight  such  years  as  that  of  1910  would 
be  sufficient  to  buy  all  the  railroads  of  the  United 
States,  including  their  costly  stations  and  all  their 
rolling  stock.  In  thirteen  years  it  would  replace 
the  present  banking  capital,  surplus  deposits,  and 
the  entire  money  in  circulation;  and  it  is  so  easy  to 
cultivate  that  millions  of  bushels  can  without  extra 
labor  be  added  to  our  crop  simply  by  a  modification 
of  the  corn  planter  or  by  even  separating  the  seed 
corn  from  the  corn  in  the  crib.  It  is  not  only  the 
most  valuable  crop  produced  in  America,  but  it  is 

289 


2QO  The  Story  of  Corn 

becoming  more  and  more  a  necessary  food  for  civi- 
lized man,  and  as  a  food  for  horses,  hogs,  and  other 
domestic  animals  it  is  by  far  the  most  important  on 
this  continent. 

When  we  speak  of  the  amount  of  corn  produced  in 
a  single  year,  the  tremendous  quantity  expressed 
by  the  term  "billions  of  bushels"  is  but  vaguely 
understood.  But  suppose  we  look  at  it  this  way: 
By  placing  the  1910  corn  crop  of  the  United  States  in 
wagons,  fifty  bushels  in  each,  and  allowing  twenty 
feet  of  space  for  each  wagon  and  team,  the  wagon 
train  of  corn  would  extend  in  length  nearly  two 
hundred  thousand  miles,  or  more  than  nine  times 
around  the  world.  Notwithstanding  this  immense 
amount,  we  are  not  producing  to-day  even  as  much 
corn  as  we  need,  and  every  state  in  the  Union, 
backed  by  the  national  government,  is  studying 
the  land,  improving  the.  seed,  training  teachers,  and 
establishing  schools  for  the  purpose  of  increasing 
production.  But  why  is  the  corn  plant  so  valuable  ? 

The  most  common  Corn  Products.  The  number 
of  uses  to  which  we  are  putting  this  Indian  plant 
is  surprising.  First,  as  food  for  man,  we  have 
corn  meal,  grits,  hulled  corn  and  hominy,  flourine 
(made  by  mixing  flour  and  meal),  roasting  ears, 
canned  corn,  pop  corn,  and  a  variety  of  breakfast 
foods,  some  of  which  are  found  on  our  table  nearly 
every  morning.  As  food  for  stock  we  have  shelled 
and  cracked  corn,  a  meal  produced  by  grinding  corn 
and  cob  together,  fodder,  ensilage  (the  whole  plant), 
corn-stalk  meal,  corn  bran,  gluten  meal,  and  oil  cake. 


Corn:     The  National  Grain 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

Here  the  corn  is  being  cut,  after  which  it  is  sent  up  the  pipe 
leading  into  the  top  of  the  silo  by  means  of  a  blower 

Besides  using  large  quantities  for  food  we  have 
other  valuable  products  derived  from  corn,  as 
follows:  Glucose  is  a  white,  sweet  substance  of 
about  half  the  sweetness  of  cane  sugar,  and  is  used 
tojaiix  with  table  sirup,  jam,  and  jellies.  It  is 
used  by  manufacturers  in  making  candy  and 
wing  gum.  Dextrine  is  a  soluble,  gummy  sub- 
ance  made  from  the  cornstarch,  and  is  used  by 
fabric  workers,  confectioners,  and  apothecaries. 
One  of  the  most  valuable  by-products,  however, 
is  cornstarch,  from  which  glucose  and  dextrine  are 
made.  It  is  used  to  a  great  extent  in  cooking,  and 


2Q2 


The  Story  of  Corn 


every  mother  in  the  home  knows  the  value  of  corn- 
starch  in  preparing  many  dishes  for  the  table,  and 
in  laundering  the  linen  for  the  family.  Textile 
manufacturers  use  it  for  the  dressing  and  finishing 
of  many  textiles,  and  especially  as  a  thickening 
material  in  calico  printing.  It  is  used  by  other 
manufacturers  in  making  baking  powder,  face 
powder,  candies,  and  even  paper. 

Oils  of  various  kinds  are  also  made  from  corn. 
We  have  machine  oils,  cylinder  oils,  toilet  soap, 
shaving  soap,  axle  grease,  laundry  goaps,  and 
table  oils,  many  of  these  oils  being  made  by  mixing 
the  corn  products  with  other  oils.  It  is  likewise 


Loaned  by  American  Manufacturers'  Association  of  Products  from  Con 

Section  of  a  starch-packing  room  in  a  corn-products  manufactory 


Corn:     The  National  Grain 


293 


used  by  paint  manufacturers  and  leather  dressers. 

From  the  cob  we  have  cob  meal,  a  stock  food; 
burned  cobs  that  make  what  is  known  as  bone  food 
for  hogs;  cob  pipes  (Missouri  is  the  cob-pipe  state 
of  the  Union);  cob  sidewalks,  which  are  superior 
to  cinder  walks,  and  were  first  used  in  Iowa;  and, 
lastly,  the  cob  used  for  fuel. 

From  husks  and  stalk  we  have  many  by-products. 
Cellulose  is  used  in  the  arts  and  also  as  a  padding 

Corn  Plant  (Maize) 


Hufks 


fllk 

' 


Breakfast  food 

Glujen    HjlU 

MJIIS                  rUl                     Fodjder           Paper            CtllulW 

Cl> 

St,HL|iood 

Maitrrsies                 Pi  pcs               Packing  in  war  vessels 

I 

Germ 

Corn  oil                                                  Oil  c.ikr  .ind  meal 

Sujap 

Paints                    Slock  food 

Lubri 

.nor                               R  ibbrr  substilulC 

Siarch 

Fojid  Lajndr 


dry 


Syr|up 


Jrxlj.n 


From  Robinson's  "Commercial  Geography" 

The  industrial  uses  of  the  corn  plant 

for  ships ;  glue  is  made  from  the  stalk  juice  by  mixing 
with  other  materials;  a  fundamental  element  in  the 
manufacture  of  dynamite,  husks  for  mattresses, 
corn  hats,  and  husks  and  silks  used  in  manufacturing 
dolls  are  some  of  the  by-products.  In  addition  to 
these  by-products,  there  is  another  that  is  becoming 
more  and  more  valuable  as  a  commercial  article, 
and  that  is  paper,  three  grades  of  which  are  made 
from  the  corn  plant. 

These  are  many  of  the  more  important  uses  to 


294  The  Story  of  Corn 

which  we  are  putting  the  corn  plant.  But  many  of 
these  by-products  in  turn  give  rise  to  a  second  series 
of  most  interesting  products.  For  example,  corn  oil, 
vulcanized,  forms  the  basis  of  a  substitute  for  rubber, 
and  when  it  is  compounded  with  sixty  per  cent  of 
India  rubber  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  rubber 
boots,  linoleum,  wheel  tires,  blankets,  and  other 
articles.  Crude  corn  oil  has  beeii  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  toilet  soap;  in  its  purified  form 
it  is  as  clear  as  alcohol,  and  is  then  used  as  the 
basis  of  a  substitute  for  olive  oil.  The  porosity  of 
the  corn  stalk  pith  adapts  it  for  sheathing  between 
the  walls  of  battle  ships,  so  that  if  the  armor  is 
penetrated  this  pith  swells  and  automatically  closes 
the  leak. 

The  Corn  Kitchen  at  the  Paris  Exposition.  Before 
1900  Indian  corn  was  not  eaten  to  any  great  extent 
by  Europeans  outside  of  Italy  and  Portugal.  But 
during  the  World's  Exposition  at  Paris  in  that  year, 
Mr.  Charles  R.  Dodge,  one  of  the  United  States 
directors,  was  in  charge  of  a  maize  kitchen,  the  pur- 
pose of  which  was  to  prepare  and  serve  free  of  charge 
all  the  dishes  made  from  corn  that  were  used  by  the 
Americans  at  home,  and  to  exhibit  the  corn  products 
manufactured  in  America.  Some  of  the  dishes 
served  were  as  follows:  the  different  corn  soups; 
yellow  and  white  corn-meal  mush;  hominy  grits; 
hominy  in  cream ;  hominy  au  gratin;  all  kinds  of  corn 
fritters  from  yellow,  white,  and  sweet  corn;  the 
different  griddle  cakes  with  maple  sirup;  frumentum 
pudding;  maizena  blanc  mange;  corn  muffins;  corn 


Corn:     The  National  Grain 

bread,  both  yellow  and  white;  Boston  brown  bread; 
and  pop  corn. 

This  kitchen  attracted  thousands  of  people  and 
fed  hundreds  daily.  As  the  visitors  inspected  the 
corn  products  and  the  cooking  they  observed  a  case 
not  more  than  three  feet  square  and  six  feet  high 
in  which  were  samples  of  the  more  important 
products  of  Indian  corn.  In  that  collection  the 
traveler  saw  corn  meal  (yellow  and  white),  pearl 
hominy,  hulled  corn,  cream  of  maize,  granulated 
corn  meal,  canned  green  corn,  canned  hulled  corn, 
maizena,  samp,  degerminated  samp,  cream  meal, 
self-raising  pancake  flour,  quick  malt,  brewer's 
grits,  husks  for  mattresses,  cellulose  made  of  pith 
for  packing  the  coffer  dams  of  battle  ships,  paper 
stock  prepared  from  shells  of  the  corn  stalk,  deger- 
minated brewers'  meal,  Bourbon  whisky,  alcohol, 
bolted  corn  meal,  hulled  corn  meal,  feed  from 
ground  corn  blades  and  stalks  and  cobs,  varnish, 
cob  pipes,  lager  beer,  fancy  table  sirup,  pop  corn, 
table  grits,  British  gum,  salves,  laundry  starch, 
vulcanized  corn  oil,  oil  cake,  grape  sugar,  gluten 
feed,  glucose,  confectioners'  crystal  glucose,  and 
confectioners '  paste. 

The  products  of  Indian  corn  made  a  beautiful 
display,  and  that  one  small  collective  exhibit  was  a 
most  interesting  and  inviting  study  to  all  who  came 
to  Paris  to  gaze  upon  the  wonders  of  the  World's 
Fair.  Visitors  from  every  nation  entered  and  were 
fed  on  the  products  of  Indian  corn.  Russian  and 
Roumanian  cooks  were  taught  how  to  prepare  the 


296  The  Story  of  Corn 

food.  The  Vegetarian  Club  of  France  sent  cooks 
to  this  kitchen  to  be  taught  how  to  use  the  Indian 
corn,  and  before  the  close  of  the  Exposition  one 
famous  restaurant  in  Paris  advertised  that  dishes 
from  Indian  corn  could  be  obtained  at  that  place. 

When  these  foods  were  compared  with  polenta, 
the  Italian  dish  made  from  corn,  the  natives  from 
that  peninsula  were  astonished,  and  Italian  women 
came  to  learn  how  the  American  foods  were  prepared. 
One  great  difficulty,  however,  in  popularizing  corn 
foods  in  many  parts,  of  Europe  was  to  be  found  in 
the  equipment  of  the  family  kitchen.  What  little 
cooking  was  done  in  the  house  was  accomplished  as 
a  rule  on  a  small  oil  or  gas  stove,  while  the  bread  was 
usually  prepared  at  the  public  bakery.  Corn  foods 
at  their  best  must  be  served  hot,  and  in  most 
countries  this  required  a  considerable  change  in 
domestic  habits. 

Corn  as  a  Food  for  Man.  The  importance  of 
corn  as  a  table  food  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  almost 
every  cook  book  and  journal  of  cooking  contains 
recipes  for  corn  dishes,  while  several  such  books  are 
devoted  exclusively  to  corn  and  corn  products. 
The  food  value,  however,  of  any  product  depends  in 
the  main  upon  four  nutritious  elements:  (i)  protein 
or  nitrogenous  material;  (2)  fat;  (3)  carbohydrates, 
including  starches  and  sugar;  and  (4)  mineral  matter 
or  ash. 

The  two  functions  of  the  food  are  to  furnish 
material  for  the  building  up  and  repair  of  body 
tissue  and  to  supply  energy  for  muscular  work  and 


Corn:     The  National  Grain 


297 


body  heat.  Only  protein  can  serve  for  the  necessary 
tissue  building.  Therefore,  this  is  usually  consid- 
ered its  main  function,  while  the  fats  and  carbo- 
hydrates are  relied  on  to  furnish  most  of  the  energy. 
When  we  compare  this  cereal  with  the  others  in 
use  by  civilized  man  we  find  that  it  does  not  contain 
as  much  protein  as  wheat,  oats,  or  barley.  But,  as 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  table,  it  contains  a 
greater  amount  of  fat  than  any  other  cereal  except 
oats.  In  starch  and  sugar,  the  leading  elements 
of  carbohydrates,  it  is  about  equal  to  wheat  flour. 
COMPOSITION  OF  CEREALS 


PROTEIN 

FAT 

STARCH 

MINERAL 
MATTER 

WATER 

Corn  meal  

% 
8.9 

% 
2.2 

% 
75  -i 

% 
0.9 

& 
70 

12.9 

Oatmeal           

15.6 

7-3 

68.0 

1  .9 

7-2 

Wheat  flour  

IO.4 

1  .0 

75.6 

0.5 

12-5 

Pearl  barley   

Q.  3 

i  .0 

77.6 

1.3 

10.8 

Rye  meal  

7-  x 

0.9 

78.5 

0.8 

17.7 

Rice  

7.8 

0.4 

79-4 

0.4 

12.4 

Buckwheat  flour  .  . 

6.1 

i  .0 

77.2 

14 

14  3 

Adapted  from  Pearl  L.  Bailey's  "Domestic  Science  Principle*  and  Application" 

The  real  value  of  any  food,  however,  depends  not 
only  upon  the  amount  of  nutrients  which  it  sup- 
plies but  also  on  the  proportion  of  these  nutri- 
ents which  the  digestive  organs  can  assimilate. 
Investigation  shows  that  there  is  little  difference 
between  Indian  corn  and  wheat  in  this  respect. 

A  Comparison.  We  have  come  at  last  to  the 
end  of  the  story.  By  comparing  the  conditions  in 
Europe  when  Columbus  discovered  America,  as 
described  in  the  first  part  of  the  book,  with  the 
conditions  to-day,  we  can  see  how  man's  knowledge 


298  The  Story  of  Corn 

has  increased  and  how  the  world  has  progressed. 
When  the  Indian  planted  his  corn  he  punched  a  hole 
in  the  ground  with  a  stick  and  kept  the  beasts  and 
birds  away  until  it  was  ready  for  the  harvest.  The 
system  of  farming  then  in  use  in  Europe  was  only  a 
little  superior  to  that  of  the  Indians.  As  knowledge 
increased,  however,  and  man  began  to  understand 
something  of  the  force  that  worked  in  the  soil,  he 
studied  the  little  roots  as  they  crept  around  in  the 
darkness  of  the  earth  beneath.  He  learned  to  care 
for  them,  just  as  he  cared  for  the  domestic  animals 
around  the  home;  and  as  they  sent  up  a  fuller  life 
to  the  plants  above  he  saw  his  food  increasing  some 
forty,  some  sixty,  and  some  even  an  hundred  fold. 
As  man's  intelligence  increased  he  threw  the  old 


Photograph  by  E.  J.  Hall 

The  modern  corn  planter.     It  was  a  long  step  from  the  laborious 

task  of  planting  each  grain  of  corn  by  hand  to  this 

swift  and  easy  method 

stick  away,  and  to-day  we  have  great  machines  that 
tear  up  the  earth,  plant  the  grain,  and  harvest  the 


Corn:     The  National  Grain 


299 


food.  The  little  stone  mortars  in  which  the  Indians 
ground  their  grain  are  kept  as  relics  in  museums, 
while  great  factories,  much  larger  than  Indian 
villages,  and  giving  work  to  more  men  than  were 


Copyright  by  Keystone  View  Co. 

Harvesting  and  loading  silage  corn 

found  in  the  leading  Indian  tribes,  to-day  handle 
millions  of  bushels  of  grain  and  grind  many  millions 
of  barrels  of  foodstuff  annually. 

When  Columbus  discovered  America  there  were 
very  few  roads  in  Europe  over  which  wagons  or 
carriages  could  pass.  Four  or  six  horses  tugged 
away  sometimes  at  the  king's  carriage,  and  foot- 
men followed  along  to  lift  it  out  of  holes  and  bogs 
and  to  protect  the  royal  family  as  it  passed  from 
town  to  town.  Foodstuffs,  therefore,  could  not  be 


joo  The  Story  of  Corn 

transported  any  great  distance.  But  to-day  the  fine 
macadam  roads,  the  swift-moving  palace  trains,  and 
the  long  line  of  freight  trains  tell  of  the  progress  of 
the  world  and  the  victory  of  mind  over  natural 
obstacles. 

When  Columbus  saw  those  patches  of  Indian  corn 
growing  on  the  Island  of  Haiti,  he  could  not  of 
course  foresee  that  within  four  centuries  this  new 
grain  would  become  the  basis  of  the  wealth  and  pros- 
perity of  America,  and  necessary  to  the  protection 
of  the  world  against  famine  and  pestilence.  How- 
ever, in  1892,  four  hundred  years  after  the  discovery 
of  America,  the  nations  of  the  world  came  together 
in  Chicago  to  celebrate  that  important  event. 
When  Columbus 's  three  frail  vessels  first  sighted 
this  new  world  wheat  was  the  leading  food,  famine 
and  pestilence  made  periodical  visits  and  claimed 
a  large  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  world. 
But  four  hundred  years  later,  when  the  mighty  war 
vessels  of  Europe,  larger  than  small  islands,  and  the 
mammoth  steamboats  crowded  with  thousands  of 
visitors  on  their  way  to  the  World's  Fair,  came  to 
America  to  celebrate  the  fourth  centennial  of  the 
discovery  of  this  new  land,  Indian  corn  had  made 
the  new  continent  richer  than  the  fabled  cities  of 
mythology,  and  had  driven  famine  from  the  civilized 
world. 

Such  are  the  mighty  changes  that  have  taken  place 
within  these  four  centuries.  The  forces  of  nature, 
however,  are  still  the  same,  yesterday,  to-day,  and 
forever.  It  is  man  that  has  changed,  not  nature. 


Corn:     The  National  Grain  joi 

Steam  had  the  same  elastic  force,  electricity  the 
same  voltage,  the  soil  the  same  life-giving  power,  in 
the  days  of  Moses  and  Ulysses  that  they  have  to-day. 
But  mind  has  developed;  and  as  the  intelligence 
works  upward  it  draws  man  away  from  the  habits 
of  the  brute,  giving  him  a  larger  understanding  and 
a  clearer  insight  into  many  natural  forces  operating 
unceasingly  for  the  betterment  of  humanity. 


«  A   BIBLIOGRAPHY 

AGRICULTURAL  DEPARTMENT: 

Fanners'  Bulletin,  Nos.  75,  142,  203,  249,  313,  314, 

389.  415- 
Year  Book,  1908,  '09,  '10,  'u,  '12,  '13,  '14. 

BAILEY:     Principles  of  Agriculture. 

BRIGHAM:     Geographic  Influences  in  American  History. 

BROOKS:    The  Story  of  Cotton. 

BRUCE:     Daniel  Boone  and  the  Wilderness  Road. 

BUCHER:     Industrial  Evolution. 

BUREAU  OF  ETHNOLOGY:    Twelfth  Annual  Report. 

Cambridge  Modern  History,  Vol.  XI. 

CHEYNEY:    Social  and  Industrial  History  of  England. 

CHISHOLM:     Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography. 

COLBERT:    Humanity  in  Its  Origin  and  Early  Growth. 

COMAN  :     Industrial  History  of  the  United  States. 

DAVIDSON:    Human  Body  and  Health. 

DONDLINGER:    The  Book  of  Wheat. 

DUGGAR:    Southern  Field  Crops. 

FISKE  :     The  Critical  Period  of  American  History. 

GREEN:    Short  History  of  the  English  People. 

HALLAM  :    The  Middle  Ages. 

HOLLAND:     Historic  Inventions. 

HOWE:     Memoir  of  the  Most  Eminent  American  Me- 
chanics. 

HULBERT:     The  History  of.  Road  Building. 

HUNT:    The  Cereals  in  America. 

MCMASTER:    History  of  the  People  of  the  United  States. 

MORLEY:    The  Life  of  Richard  Cobden. 

MYRICK:    The  Book  of  Corn. 

REDWAY:    The  Making  of  the  American  Nation. 

302 


A  Bibliography  303 


ROBINSON:    Commercial  Geography. 
ROGERS  :    Work  and  Wages. 
ROOSEVELT:    The  Winning  of  the  West. 
SMILES:    Life  of  George  Stephenson. 
SOYER:     Pantropheon  (out  of  print). 
THOMPSON:     Practical  Dietetics. 
TURNER:    Rise  of  the  New  West. 


THE  INDEX 


AFRICA,  corn  in  South,  247-248,  273- 
274. 

Agricultural  Department  of  United 
States  organized  Corn  Clubs,  263- 
265. 

Agricultural  experiment  stations,  244, 
251,  282-283. 

Agricultural  machinery,  217-235. 

Agricultural  schools,  251;  first,  242; 
work  of  the,  244. 

Agriculture,  an  important  factor  of 
early  settlements  in  America,  55; 
improvements  in,  240-243;  in  the 
early  Western  States,  140;  in  South 
America,  246;  primitive  methods  of, 
I32-I3S- 

Alaska,  corn  in,  275. 

America,  agriculture  an  important  fac- 
tor in  early  settlements  of,  55;  com- 
merce of  the  world  affected  by 
discovery  of,  51-53;  divided  among 
the  Europeans,  6q;  free  lands  of, 
76-77 ;  forces  which  influenced  growth 
of  colonies  in,  70-80;  how  settled, 
77-79. 

Animals,  domesticated  by  primitive 
people,  9—1 1. 

Argentine  Republic,  246. 

Arrowroot  flour,  33. 

Asia,  corn  in,  273. 

Australia,  corn  in,  274. 

BAKER  of  ancient  times,  an  impor- 
tant person,  35-37. 

Baldwin,  Matthias  W.,  191. 

Baltimore,  a  cattle  market,  143;  active 
in  railroad  building,  192. 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  192; 
beginning  of,  190. 

Barley  bread,  33. 

Beeson,  Bennie,  261. 

Benton,  Senator,  180. 

"Big  Ditch,"  169. 

Binders,  corn,  226-227. 

Blenkensop  engine,  185. 

Boll  weevil,  255-257. 

Boone,  Daniel,  98-101. 

Boonesboro,  101. 

Boys'  Corn  Clubs,  250-265. 

Bread,  ancients  used  various  kinds  of, 
36-37;  of  the  world,  32-35. 

Bread-baking,  an  ancient  art,  28-30. 

Buckwheat,  33. 

Buenos  Aires,  246. 

CAHOKIA,  107. 


Canals,  157-158;  and  their  effect  on 
the  East,  174-175;  and  their  effect  on 
Mississippi  trade,  175-176;  and  their 
effect  on  the  West,  172-174;  building 
of,  168-172;  decline  in  importance  of, 
192;  travel  by  boat  on,  172-173. 

Carroll,  Charles,  100. 

Castor-oil  bean  in  the  Wabash  Valley, 
142. 

Cattle,  uses  made  of  all  parts  of, 
210-212. 

Cattle  trade,  a  resource  of  the  West  dur- 
ing panics,  179;  between  Western  and 
Eastern  States,  143. 

Cellulose,  293^. 

Central  America,  corn  in,  275. 

Cereals,  chief  food  of  primitive  man 
and  beast,  11-15;  composition  of, 
297. 

Ceres,  10-21. 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal,  171. 

Chicago,  194;  a  great  grain  center,  232; 
growth  of,  205-214. 

China,  corn  in,  273-275. 

Cincinnati,  122,  141,  147,  181,  208;  a 
great  meat  market,  179;  a  trade 
center,  164-165;  the  "Queen  City" 
of  the  West,  176. 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  104-108. 

Clay,  Henry,  in  the  Senate,  149-151. 

"Clermont,"  the,  153-155. 

Clinton,  Governor,  169. 

Cobden,  Richard,  181. 

Columbus  writes  to  Spain  of  cornfields 
in  the  Xew  World,  40. 

Commerce,  a  means  of  joining  Eastern 
and  Western  States,  145;  beginning 
of,  30-40:  between  Eastern  and 
Western  States  in  the  early  days. 
£36-139;  between  states,  regulated 
by  Congress,  156;  in  relation  to  food 
supply,  51-53- 

Conestoga  wagons.  138. 

Cooking,  ancient  knowledge  of,  28-30. 

Cooper,  Peter,  190. 

Corn,  35,  55;  an  important  crop  among 
the  pioneers  of  America,'  134-135; 
and  its  importance  in  history  01 
America,  42-43,  72;  and  its  relation 
to  the  live-stock  industry,  208-210; 
as  a  food,  296-297;  as  handled  in 

S-ain  elevators,  230-233;  beginning  of 
uropean  trade  in,  182;  chief  source 
of  wealth  in   Western  States,   142- 
145;   comparison   of   early   methods 
with  present  methods  of  cultivation 


304 


The  Index 


305 


of,  297-301;  conditions  favorable  to 
production  of.27O-27i;early  methods 
of  harvesting,  222-225;  extent  of 
cultivation  of,  271-275;  formation 
of  varieties  of,  278-279;  good  soil 
improves  variety  of,  283-288;  growth 
of  colonies  depended  on,  86-88;  in 
Kentucky,  102-103;  in  the  New 
World,  40-41;  in  the  Ohio  Valley, 
96;  in  South  America,  246-248;  in 
the  West,  124,  125,  126,  179-181; 
in  the  world's  commerce,  207,  244- 
245;  Indian  myth  of  origin  of,  21-24; 
machines  for  harvesting,  225-228; 
national  grain  of  America,  176,  289, 
301;  Piedmont  country  depended  on, 
85-86;  origin  of,  277-278;  pod,  277; 
problem  in  United  States  of  increas- 
ing production  of,  249-250,  252-253; 
production  of,  215,  244;  products  of, 
290-296;  proper  selection  of  seed, 
270-283;  soft,  276-277;  sweet,  276; 
the  American  gold,  73;  the  Thirteen 
Colonies  prospered  on,  80-85;  used 
by  early  settlers  in  America,  65-77; 
used  by  Western  States  to  fatten 
cattle,  hogs,  and  horses  for  trade, 
I43-I4S;  value  of,  280-290;  varieties 
of,  275-277;  whiskey  made  from,  86. 

Corn  binders,  226-227. 

Corn  clubs,  251,  259-265. 

Corn  country,  and  its  influence  on  the 
science  of  agriculture,  242;  Daniel 
Boone  and  the,  98-101;  difficulties  of 
joining  the  rest  of  the  world  with  the, 
149-166;  early  life  in  the,  132-148; 
English  and  French  struggle  lor 
possession  of  the,  92;  the  Far  West 
dependent  upon  the,  239-240;  first 
settlement  in  the,  121-123;  geography 
of  the,ao8-i  10;  George  Rogers  Clark 
saves  the,  104-108;  growth  of  the, 
176-178;  Kentucky  a,  108;  limits  of 
the,  200-202;  opening  the  great, 
93-110;  population  in,  199,  202: 
prosperity  of  the,  202-205;  railrqaa 
starts  toward  the,  191-194;  settling 
the,  111-113. 

Corn  Kitchen  at  the  Paris  Exposition, 
294-296. 

"Corn"  of  the  world,  11-13. 

Corn  pickers,  228. 

Corn  shockers,  227-228. 

Cotton,  140-141;  ravaged  by  the  boll 
weevil,  255-257. 

Cotton  lands',  129. 

"Critical  Period,"  113. 

Cumberland,  starting  point  for  first 
great  national  highway,  148. 

Cumberland  Gap,  98. 

Cumberland  River,  steamboats  on  the, 
164. 

Cuyahoga  River,  171. 

DEERSKINS,    used    as    clothing    by 

early  Westerners,  140. 
Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Canal,  171. 


Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal,  171. 
Demeter,  19. 

Demonstration  work,  farmers'  coopera- 
tive, 255-258,  265-267. 
Dent  corn,  275-276,  280. 
Dextrine,  291. 
Dodge,  Charles  R.,  294. 
Duluth,  210. 

EAST,  effect  of  building  of  canals  on 

the,  174. 

Egypt,  corn  in,  273. 
Egyptian  myth  of  food-giving  plants, 

17-19. 

Elevators,  grain,  230-233. 
Emigration  from  Europe,  128-129. 
English,   in   the  Ohio   Valley,   French 

and,  95-98. 
English  settlement  in  America,  first, 

60-65.  ' 

Epimetheus,  story  of,  5-7. 
Erie  Canal,   189,   204;  a  highway  for 

settlers     seeking     the     West,     176; 

opening  of  the,  160-171. 
Europe,  emigration  from,  128-129. 
Everett,  Edward,  on  corn  or  American 

gold,  73. 
Experiment  stations,  agricultural,  244, 

251,  282-283. 
Explorers  in  the  New  World,  58-60. 

FAMINES,  44,  181;  cause  of,  45-47;  of 
the  world,  48,  50;  settlement  of 
America  reduces,  52-55. 

Farmer,  and  business  management, 
267-268. 

Farmers'  cooperative  demonstration 
work,  255-258;  result  of,  265-267. 

Farming,  improvements  in  methods  of, 
240-243;  machinery  for,  218-235; 
primitive  implements  of,  217-218. 
See  also  Agriculture. 

Feeding  instinct,  1-2. 

Fertilizer,  use  of,  285-288. 

Flint  corn,  275. 

Floating  stores,  145-147. 

"Fodder,"  224. 

Food,  a  factor  in  civilization,  26-43; 
evils  due  to  insufficient,  44-51; 
importance  of  good,  30-31;  in  rela- 
tion to  the  body,  2-5;  its  selection 
and  preparation,  a  study  in  our 
schools  to-day,  31;  struggle  for,  1-15. 

Food-giving  plants,  mythical  stories  of, 
16-25. 

Food  supply  of  world,  as  affected  by 
discovery  of  a  new  continent,  44-56: 
center  of  the,  214-216;  relation  of 
commerce  to,  51-53. 

Fort  Banner,  122. 

France,  corn  in,  271. 

Free  lands  of  America,  76. 

French  explorers  in  America,  60. 

French  in  the  Ohio  Valley,  95-98. 

Frontiers  of  America,  early,  88-92;  the 
last,  236-251. 

Fulton,  Robert,  152-155. 


jo6 


The  Index 


GENOA,  a  trading  center.  40. 
Georgia,   active   in   railroad   building, 

190. 

Glucose,  291. 
Grain  elevators,  230-233. 
Grain  of  the  West,  178-182. 
Grain  trade  of  Chicago,  213-214. 
Granary  of  the   world,  the,    197-216; 

how  the  West  became  the,  217-235. 
Great  Lakes,  an  influence  toward  the 

building  of  the  West,  204. 
Greece,  corn  in,  273. 
Greek  myth  of  food-giving  plant,  19-21. 
Guthrie,  201. 

HADLEY,  A.  N.,  227. 
Hagerstown,  138,  139- 
Harrod,  James,  settlement  made  by, 

101. 
Harvesting,  early  methods  of,  222-225; 

primitive  methods  of,  220. 
Hatch,  Representative,  243. 
Hiawatha,  Mondamin  and,  21-24. 
Highways,  ancient,  94-95;  to  the  West, 

117.     See  also  Roads. 
Hill,  Junius,  261. 
Hogs,  in  streets  of  early  Chicago,  206, 

208;  use  made  of  all  parts  of,  2 1 2-213; 

Western   States   establish   trade   in, 

144-145. 

Hopkins,  Cyril  G.,  286. 
Horses,  Western  States  establish  trade 

in,  144-145. 

Hudson-Mohawk  route,  117.  169. 
Hungary,  corn  in,  273. 
Hunger,  2-5. 
Huskinson,  Mr.,  187. 

ICELAND  moss,  34. 

Illinois,  109,  117,  125. 

Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  206. 

Immigrants    to    America,     1823-1910, 

216. 
Immigration  to  the  United  States  from 

E_urope,  178. 

India,  corn  in,  273;  famines  in,  44. 
Indiana,  109,  117,  125. 
Indian  corn.     See  Corn. 
Indian    method    of    cultivating    corn, 

298-299. 
Indians,  Boone  and  the,  101;  of  North 

America,   7-9;  myth  of  food-giving 

plants  of  the,  21-24. 
Indian  trails,  92,  136. 
Internal    improvements,    an    era    of, 

167-182;  dispute  over,  151;  need  of, 

149-150;    invention    of    steamboats 

aids  cause  of,  157-159. 
Iowa,  109,  202. 
Isis  and  Osiris,  17-19. 
Italy,  corn  in,  271. 

JAMESTOWN  colony,  63. 

KANSAS,  199. 
Kansas  City,  210. 
Kaskaskia,  Clark  at,  107. 


Kentucky,  09-103,  112,  123;  a  great 
corn  country,  108;  George  Rogers 
Clark  in,  104-108;  Henry  Clay  sent 
to  Senate  by,  149. 

Killingsworth,  England,  185,  187. 

Knapp,  Seaman  A.,  253-255,  256;  257, 
258,  259,  267,  280;  death  of,  261. 

LANCASTER  ROAD,  127,  145. 

Land  companies,  122. 

Landlords  of  England,  74-76. 

Land  ownership  in  England,  74-76;  in 
America,  76-79,  87. 

La  Plata  River,  valley  of  the,  246. 

I.eath,  Ben,  261. 

Liverpool-Manchester  Road  of  Eng- 
land, i'n. 

Live-stock  industry,  208-213;  relation 
of  corn  to  the,  208-210. 

Livingston,  Chancellor,  153. 

"Loader,"  corn,  228. 

Locomotive,  first  American-built,  190; 
introduced  into  America,  188-189; 
invention  of,  185-188;  motive- 
power  for  first,  190-191. 

Louisiana,  121. 

Louisville,  147;  a  trade  center,  165. 

MACHINERY,  agricultural,  217-235. 
McCormick,     Cyrus     Hall,    and     the 

reaper,  218-220. 
McKenzie,  John,  208. 
Maize,  Indian  myth  of  origin  of,  21-24; 

origin  of  the  name,  41.   See  also  Corn. 
Marietta,  122. 
Maryland,  active  in  railroad  building, 

190,  192. 
Meat-packing    industry    in    Chicago, 

2O8-2'IO. 

Mexico,  corn  in,  275. 

Michigan,  117. 

Migration,  and  its  effect  on  the  Eastern 
States,  129;  westward,  123-128. 

Millet  flour,  33. 

Minnesota,  178,  199. 

Mississippi  River,  137;  and  its  tribu- 
taries, 160-163;  controlled  by 
Spanish,  119;  effect  of  canal-building 
on  trade  of  the,  175-176;  trans- 
portation on  the,  145. 

Mississippi  Valley,  150-160,  163-166; 
affected  by  invention  of  steamboat, 
157;  "the  body  of  the  nation,"  159. 

Missouri,  no,  125. 

Missouri  River,  steamboats  on  the,  164. 

Mondamin  and  Hiawatha,  21-24. 

Moore,  Jerry,  259. 

Merrill,  Senator  Justin,  242. 

Moses  and  the  health  laws,  31. 

Muskingum  River,  122,  171. 

Mythical  stories  of  food-giving  plants, 
16-25. 

NATIONAL  CORN  CLUB,  264. 
Navigation  of  streams,  question  as  to 
control  of,  156. 


The  Index 


307 


Nebraska,  109,  199. 

New  England  states  opposed  measures 
designed  for  the  upbuilding  of  the 
West,  130. 

New  Orleans,  121,  167. 

Nile  River,  17-19. 

Northwest,  The,  108-110,  123;  Cin- 
cinnati, capital  of,  122;  forming,  115- 
116;  government  of,  116-117. 

OATS,  33- 

Ogden,  William  B.,  219. 

Ohio,  109,  117,  125,  147-148;  active 
for  better  means  of  communication 
between  East  and  West,  149. 

Ohio  Canal,  171-172. 

Ohio  Company,  122. 

Ohio  River,  125,  137;  floating  stores 
on  the,  146-147;  steamboats  on  the, 
155;  transportation  on  the,  145. 

Ohio  Valley,  French  and  English  in  the, 
9S-98. 

Oils  made  from  corn,  292. 

Oklahoma  Territory,  200. 

"Old  Ironsides,"  191. 

Omaha,  210. 

Ordinance  of  1787,  116. 

Osiris,  Isis  and,  17-19. 

PACK  HORSES,  138-139. 

Packing     houses,     product     of     the, 

210-213. 
Peasants  of  Europe  come  to  America, 

77-79. 

Peck,  A.  S.,  226. 
Peel,  Robert,  181-187. 
Pennsylvania    establishes    a    rail-and- 

water  route,  189-190. 
Pennsylvania  trail,  117. 
Peterson,  J.  C.,  225. 
Philadelphia,    a    cattle    market,    143; 

constructs   turnpikes  between   East 

and    West,    145;    establishes    trade 

with  West,  138. 

Philippine  Islands,  corn  in  the,  273. 
Piedmont  country  depended  on  corn, 

85-86. 
Pittsburgh,  117,  124;  center  of  trade, 

146;    wagon    route    between    Phila- 
delphia and,  145. 
Plagues,  44. 
Plato's  story  of  man's  superiority  over 

the  lower  animals,  5-7. 
Platte  River,  steamboats  on  the,  164. 
Plow,    development    of    the,    228-230: 

of  the  early  settler  in  the   United 

States,  132-133- 
Plowing  in  Palestine,  15. 
Plymouth,  colony  at,  66-67. 
Polenta,  271.  298. 
Political     difficulties     of     the     early 

United     States,     150-152;     of     the 

thirteen  states,  113-115. 
Political  persecution  in  Europe,  79-80. 
"Poor  laws"  of  England,  76. 
Pop  corn,  276. 


Population,  and  its  movement  west- 
ward, 1820  to  1850,  I77_;  center  of, 
1700-1910,  200;  in  the  new  Western 
States,  1790-1820,  130-131;  in  the 
corn  country,  199,  202;  movement  of, 
238-239. 

Pork,  supplied  by  the  Western  States, 
179-180. 

Pork-packing  business  moved  from 
Cincinnati  to  Chicago,  194. 

Potatoes  a  new  food  of  the  early 
explorers  in  America,  55. 

Potomac  River  Trail,  117. 

Prairie  lands,  last  of  the,  236-237. 

Price,  Sir  Thomas,  247. 

Prometheus,  story  of,  5-7. 

Proserpine,  19-21. 

Putnam,  General  Rufus,  116,  122. 

QUAKERS  move  into  the  Northwest, 
129. 

RAILROAD,  development  of  the,  183- 
196;  an  agent  of  prosperity  to  the 
Northwest,  203-205;  effect  of  the, 
194-196;  enters  Chicago,  207;  first. 
184;  reaches  the  corn  country,  192. 

Reaper,  Cyrus  Hall  McCormick  and 
the,  218-219;  effect  of  the,  219^220; 
and  threshing  machine  combined, 
220-221. 

Religious  and  political  persecution  in 
Europe,  79-80. 

Renick,  George,  143. 

Rice,  33. 

River  valleys,  of  the  New  World,  56; 
wars  of  the  world  for  control  of, 
37-39- 

Roads,  between  East  and  West  con- 
structed by  Philadelphia,  145;  Con- 
gress builds  first  public,  148:  early 
military,  136-137;  Indian  trails  used 
as  first,  92,  136. 

"Rocket,"  the,  187-188. 

Roman  myth  of  food-giving  plants. 
10-21. 

RooseveU,  Nicholas  J..  155- 

Roumania,  leading  corn  country  in 
Europe,  273. 

Russia,  corn  in,  273,  *75. 

Rye  bread,  33. 

SAGO  bread,  34- 

St.  Clair,  General,  117. 

St.  Louis,  164.  210. 

Salt,  tariff  on,  180. 

Scioto  River,  171. 

Scioto  Valley,  143. 

Seed  corn,  proper  selection  of,   270- 

283. 

"Seneca  Chief,"  the.  169.  170. 
Servants,  peasants  of  Europe  in  order 

to  reach   America  bind   themselves 

as,  77-79.  87. 
Shippensburg,  138.  139- 
Shockers,  corn.  227-228. 


308 


The  Index 


Slavery  in  America,  beginning  of,  88. 

Smith,  John,  and  the  Indians.  65-71. 

Smith,  W.  H.,  259. 

Soil,  primitive  methods  of  tilling  the, 
132-134;  variety  of  corn  improved 
by  good,  283-288. 

South,  boys'  corn  clubs  in  the,  259-265; 
farmers'  codperative  demonstration 
work  in  the.  256-258,  265-267. 

South  America,  corn  in,  246-248.  274. 

South  Carolina,  active  in  railroad 
building,  190. 

Soya  bread,  33. 

Spain,  corn  in,  271. 

Spanish  explorers  in  America,  58,  60. 

Squanto  teaches  colonists  how  to  plant 
corn,  67. 

States'  Rights,  113-115. 

Steamboat,  a  force  at  work  for  internal 
improvements,  157-159;  competition 
between  railroad  and,  204;  early 
transportation  by,  164-166;  inven- 
tion of  the,  152-155. 

Steamboat  companies,  rival,  156-157. 

Stephenson,  George,  185-188. 

Stephenson,  Robert,  185. 

Stock  country  of  America,  239. 

Stock  yards  of  Chicago,  208. 

Stores,  floating,  145-147- 

"Stover,"  222. 

TAPIOCA  flour,  34- 

Tenant  farmers  of  England,  7S-?6. 

Tennessee,  112,  123. 

Teosinte,  277. 

Terrell,  Texas,  256. 

"The  Best  Friend,"  second  American- 
built  locomotive,  191. 

"The  Western  Stock  Journal  and 
Farm,"  255. 

Threshing  machine,  220-221;  and 
reaper  combined,  220-221. 

"Tom  Thumb,"  first  American-built 
locomotive,  190. 

Trading.    See  Commerce. 

Trails,  early  Indian,  94~°5. 

Transylvania,  iqi. 

Tupper,  Benjamin,  122. 

Turkey,  corn  in,  273. 


Turnpikes,  national,  147-148.  See  also 
Roads. 

VANDERBILT,  CORNELIUS,  and  the 

sttamboat  business,  i.>7- 
Vegetables,  used  as  medicinal  plants  by 

ancients,  24-25. 

Vegetarian  Club  of  France,  206. 
Venice,  a  trading  center,  40. 
Vincennes,  107. 

WATERWAYS,  inland,  158-159. 

Watt,  James,  154. 

Weevil,  protection  of  corn  against,  281. 

Welland  Canal,  174. 

Wellington,  Duke  of,  187. 

West,  The,  cattle  trade  between  the 
East  and,  143;  center  of  world's 
food  supply,  214-226;  dependent 
upon  the  South,  167-168;  difficulties 
in  settling,  119;  early  commerce 
between  states  of  the  East  and  states 
of,  136-139;  effect  of  canal-building 
on,  172-174;  effect  of  lack  of  easy 
communication  with  outside  world 
on,  136,  140-142;  first  great  national 
road  between  East  and,  148;  grain  of 
the,  178-182;  the  granary  of  the 
world,  196,  217-235;.  movement  to, 
198-200;  railroad  joins  East  to, 
190-194;  steamboat  traffic  joins 
southern  and  eastern  section  of 
country  to,  163-166. 

Western  territory,  states  dispute  over, 
113-115. 

West  Indies,  corn  in,  275- 

Westward  migration,  123-128. 

Wheat,  an  undependable  crop,  217;  on 
the  eastern  seaboard,  215. 

Wheat  bread,  33- 

Wheeling,  first  great  national  road 
completed  to,  148. 

Whiskey,  corn  used  to  mak»,  86. 

Wilderness  Road,  101,  117.  123. 

"Wild  Onion  Place,"  205. 

Wilson,  James,  255.  256,  265. 

Wisconsin,  117. 

Wood,  Jethro,  229. 

"YORK,"  191. 


